In recent years, the practice of land development right transfer and transaction has not only appeared in the practice of land use in China, but also developed to a considerable scale. Since 2000, in order to break through the constraints of China's existing land planning management model on the supply of construction land in the process of rapid industrialization and urbanization, some eastern coastal provinces in China have made a series of very creative reform attempts on the transfer and transaction of land development rights at the policy level. These attempts not only provide unique and rich practical materials for the research on the transfer and transaction of land development rights, but also mean the improvement, breakthrough and even innovation of the existing land planning management model. These reforms are of great significance to a developing country like China, where the central government wants to protect scarce cultivated land resources, and local governments are increasingly demanding land under the conditions of rapid urbanization and industrialization.

First, the implementation of land planning in Zhejiang under the management mode of construction land planning

(A) China's planned management mode of construction land

The planned management of construction land in China is mainly achieved through the implementation of the overall land use planning (hereinafter referred to as land planning) and the annual land use plan (hereinafter referred to as land planning). Land planning generally stipulates the total amount of construction land that can be added in a region in a long period of time (for example,10-15 years), and it is spatially implemented in specific plots. Specifically, the scale of new construction land mainly depends on the so-called "planning index" of cultivated land occupied by construction, because statistically, the main land type occupied by new construction land in most areas is cultivated land. In principle, the actual amount of cultivated land occupied by new construction in a region during the planning period can not only exceed the total amount of "planning indicators", but also conform to the spatial layout of land planning. On the premise of conforming to the land planning, the annual land plan stipulates the amount of cultivated land that can be added for construction in a region in that year.

In order to achieve the "balance between occupation and compensation" of cultivated land, the central government will also reduce the total amount of supplementary cultivated land to all provinces and regions during the planning period. Therefore, if the potential of supplementary cultivated land in a certain area is insufficient, the scale of cultivated land occupied by construction will be limited. 1997 the central government put forward that all provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government must strictly follow the requirements of dynamic balance of total cultivated land, so that the total cultivated land in the local area can only increase, but not decrease. The early plan issued by the former State Bureau of Land Management to all provinces and autonomous regions was strictly based on the principle of dynamic balance of total cultivated land, requiring all provinces to realize net increase of cultivated land by the end of the planning period. However, in the Outline of the National Land Use Master Plan approved by the State Council, the amount of cultivated land is adjusted to1920150,000 mu, which is 30.45 million mu less than the current cultivated land at the end of 1996. This may be due to the fact that some indicators of ecological returning farmland and damaged cultivated land were not included in the balance plan, and accordingly the amount of supplementary cultivated land reached by the central government exceeded the construction occupation of each province.

To sum up, the amount of cultivated land occupied by construction ("planning indicators"), the amount of supplementary cultivated land and the task of protecting basic farmland are the core indicators of1997-2010 land planning. Once these three indicators are determined, the total amount and spatial layout of new construction land in a region in the future will be determined. The amount of construction land that can be added each year is determined by the annual land plan.

(B) Zhejiang Province1997-2010 land planning index decomposition

First of all, like other provinces in China, Zhejiang's full coverage land planning was approved by the State Council in 1999 and started to be implemented. The planning period is 1997—20 10 year. 1997 started this round of land planning, which is characterized by important control planning indicators, such as the basic farmland protection area, the reduction of cultivated land during the planning period, the supplementary cultivated land amount, and the amount of cultivated land kept by the central government in a top-down manner to all provinces and regions, and then the provinces are decomposed step by step to the towns and villages. Therefore, township-level land planning is the basic planning for the implementation and management of land planning, and it is the direct basis for judging whether the area and spatial layout of agricultural conversion conform to the planning in the process of examination and approval of construction land.

Secondly, the basic farmland protection area granted by the central government to Zhejiang Province is 27 1 1 10,000 mu. According to the method of basic farmland protection assigned by the central government, the basic farmland protection area of Zhejiang province, which reaches all cities, also accounts for about 85% of the cultivated land area of all prefecture-level cities in that year, with a difference of less than 2%. In fact, although the method of allocating basic farmland protection tasks roughly according to a proportion does not take into account the huge differences in cultivated land resources endowment, future construction land demand and marginal opportunity cost of protecting basic farmland, it is technically difficult to measure the marginal cost of protecting basic farmland, especially if the basic farmland protection tasks are not allocated according to a similar proportion, it will encounter great pressure from local governments of cities and counties, so the allocation method of roughly the same proportion is adopted because of its simple technology and small administrative resistance.

Third, the amount of supplementary cultivated land reaching Zhejiang Province under the central government is1160,000 mu, which is160,000 mu more than the cultivated land occupied by construction. According to the principle of "balance between occupation and compensation", the amount of supplementary cultivated land in Zhejiang Province is basically linked to the planning index of construction occupation of cultivated land.

(C) the contradiction between the current planned management mode of construction land and Zhejiang's economic development

Zhejiang is one of the provinces with the highest level of economic development and the fastest pace of urbanization and industrialization in China. Due to the tight "planning indicators" issued by the central government to Zhejiang Province in 1999 and the "planning indicators" issued year by year, it is difficult to meet the actual demand for construction land in Zhejiang Province under the current land planning management system with strong rigid constraints. The performance is: in terms of planning indicators and total planning indicators, it cannot meet the rapidly growing demand for construction land. In terms of spatial layout, the planned new construction land does not completely match the actual needs in space. In terms of the amount of supplementary cultivated land, because the amount of supplementary cultivated land is linked to the amount of cultivated land occupied by construction, it is difficult for areas with small potential for supplementary cultivated land and large land use to achieve the requirement of "balance of occupation and compensation"

Obviously, the land planning with the three basic elements of "planning index", "supplementary cultivated land quantity" and "basic farmland protection task" and the annual land plan with the "planning index" as the basic elements in 2000 are very strict.

Second, the "Zhejiang model" of land development rights transfer and transaction

When the main controlling indicators of land planning are decomposed into towns and villages from top to bottom without considering the actual demand of construction land in various places, there will be a serious shortage of construction land supply in rapidly industrialized and urbanized areas, and it is difficult to implement the tasks of basic farmland protection and farmland occupation and compensation. However, a key problem here is that, due to the information asymmetry between the higher-level government and the lower-level government and even the land-using units, it is very difficult to economically decompose the planning indicators according to the actual needs of various places, because both the lower-level government and the land-using units have the incentive to overstate the land demand; At the same time, even if the higher-level government carries out multi-index weighted decomposition according to certain objective indicators, it is not only technically controversial, but also easily leads to political resistance from the lower-level government. Any distribution scheme may be regarded as favoring one over the other and may lead to unfair development opportunities everywhere.

(A) land development rights transfer policy in the region

The first dimension of land development right transfer in the region is to introduce "credit index" and "reclamation index". The so-called "discount index" refers to the index of new effective cultivated land converted into construction land after land consolidation. The concept of "reclamation index" puts forward that "for rural residential areas and industrial enterprises that have been relocated according to the plan, the area that has been returned to farmland and farmland can be replaced with agricultural land in the new site as new construction land". Although the allowance and reclamation indicators are similar to the planned indicators, they are superior to the planned indicators from the perspective of local government use. This is because the planned indicators are time-sensitive, and if they are not used in the current year, they will expire and become invalid. However, in terms of the use of discount index and reclamation index, Zhejiang Province has creatively established a land consolidation discount index database and a construction land rehabilitation index database. Like the funds in the bank passbook, the discount index and reclamation index can be continuously accumulated and withdrawn in different years, and there is no problem that they will be invalidated if they are not used up in that year.

The second dimension of land development right transfer in the region is "the area to be replaced" and "the policy of centralized replacement of basic farmland" Although the introduction of the concept of "area to be replaced" has expanded the planned construction land area, the original planned use of "area to be replaced" is mostly ordinary farmland, and if the part of cultivated land that may be occupied by construction in the future is classified as "basic farmland" when the township land planning is made, it cannot be classified as "area to be replaced", so it is still impossible to occupy it for construction.

(B) Cross-regional land development rights transactions

Although the introduction of a series of "land development right transfer within the region" policies such as "allowance, reclamation index" and "centralized replacement policy of land to be replaced and basic farmland" can increase the amount of cultivated land occupied by construction, there is still a problem of cross-regional imbalance. In the most economically developed cities in Zhejiang, such as Hangzhou and Ningbo, and some particularly developed counties and cities, such as Yiwu, Yueqing, Ruian, Dongyang and Shaoxing Yuecheng District, the demand for construction land far exceeds that of underdeveloped areas in the province, but the potential of land consolidation and reclamation in these areas is lower than the average level of the whole province. Therefore, they can be offset by local land consolidation, and the reclamation index is very limited; Secondly, the task of protecting basic farmland was clearly defined in the land plan approved by 1999. However, in some developed areas with large demand for construction land and little potential for land consolidation, it is often impossible to increase the area to be replaced by centralized replacement of basic farmland, thus limiting the space for new construction land. Finally, there is a problem that different regions need to meet the requirements of "balance of cultivated land occupation and compensation". The common contradiction is still that the construction of areas with rapid economic development occupies a large amount of cultivated land, but the potential for supplementing cultivated land is small, while the situation in underdeveloped areas is just the opposite.

In order to solve the above problems, Zhejiang Province creatively introduced the market mechanism, and realized the "cross-regional land development right transaction" by constructing three operational concepts: "paid adjustment of discount indicators", "replacement of basic farmland for protection" and "ex situ replenishment of cultivated land".

III. Conclusion and discussion

Academic circles have also discussed the reform and exploration of land development rights transfer and transaction in Zhejiang, questioning that Zhejiang's approach is to evade the central government's approval right of basic farmland and increase the paid use fee of construction land, which leads to the decline of basic farmland quality and the total amount of construction land out of control. The rich practice of land development right transfer and transaction in Zhejiang Province undoubtedly provides a new perspective to examine the existing farmland protection and construction land planning management system in China. As a big country with different cultivated land resources endowments and unbalanced economic development, how to introduce the systematic reform scheme of "intra-regional land development right transfer" and "cross-regional land development right transaction" nationwide to achieve the goal of improving land use efficiency and coordinated development of cross-regional economy is a major issue that must be dealt with in deepening the reform of China's land policy system at present. The "Zhejiang model" of land development right transfer and transaction has national significance. In fact, due to the very limited arable land resources in Zhejiang Province, the space for further "trading of discount indicators", "replacing cultivated land with compensation" and "balancing the occupation and compensation of cultivated land in different places" has been shrinking day by day.

The promotion of the above "Zhejiang Model" at the national level is also of great significance to the future development of Zhejiang itself. On the basis of fully summarizing the experience and lessons of the "Zhejiang Model" of land development rights transfer and transaction, how to improve the theory and improve the policy system and promote its popularization at the national level is a challenge that relevant government departments and academic circles at all levels must face in the future.