I. The Political System of Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties

1. The Political System of Xia and Shang Dynasties: ① The first dynasty in Chinese history, the Xia Dynasty, was founded by Yu, and China's early national political system began in the Xia Dynasty. After the accession to the throne, the hereditary system of the throne replaced the abdication system in the later period of primitive society. (2) Shang dynasty inherited the system of Xia dynasty and changed slightly, with a set of administrative management system from central to local. There are Xiang and Qing officials in the central government and Feng Hou and Bo in the local government.

2. The enfeoffment system of the Western Zhou Dynasty: ① King Wu of Zhou Dynasty destroyed the merchants and established the Western Zhou Dynasty. The western Zhou dynasty implemented the enfeoffment system, also known as the founding of the country. King Wu awarded a certain amount of land and people to the royal family, heroes and nobles of the previous generation, so that they could establish vassal States and defend the royal family. The fundamental purpose is to consolidate the rule of the Zhou Dynasty. . Obligation: The vassals of the enfeoffment have the obligation to defend the territory, follow the battle, pay tribute and make a pilgrimage. Influence: The enfeoffment system strengthened the Zhou Emperor's rule over the local area, expanded the ruling area, and formed a strict hierarchy within the aristocratic ruling class "Emperor-vassal-master-scholar"

② In the late Western Zhou Dynasty, the kingship declined. As the vassal power grew, the enfeoffment system was destroyed. The landmark event is that the king of Chu won the championship.

3. Patriarchal system in the Western Zhou Dynasty: ① Patriarchal system is a political system with the exterior and interior of enfeoffment system, which evolved from patriarchal system in primitive society. ② The biggest feature and core of the patriarchal clan system in the Western Zhou Dynasty is the system of direct eldest son inheritance. There are big and small clans, the eldest son system is large, the rest are small clans, and the small clans must obey the large ones. The relationship between the major and minor clans is not only a family hierarchy (brothers) relationship, but also a political subordination (superior and subordinate) relationship. ④ The embodiment of patriarchal clan system in political system is the enfeoffment system. From the emperor to the vassal, to Dr. Qing and then to the scholar (the lowest level), it was divided into layers. Patriarchal system ensures the monopoly and privileged position of the nobility in politics, and is also conducive to the stability and unity within the ruling group.

Second, the formation of centralization of authority in Qin Dynasty

1. Supreme imperial power: ① During the Warring States Period, after Shang Yang's political reform, Ying Zheng, king of Qin, destroyed Korea, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan and Qi successively, and established the first unified feudal dynasty in Chinese history-Qin Dynasty. (2) Ying Zheng stipulated that the feudal supreme ruler was the "emperor" and claimed to be the "first emperor". 3 Qin Shihuang stipulated that the emperor called me; The emperor's order is called "control" or "imperial edict"; The jade seal used by the emperor is called "seal". All the administrative, economic, military and other powers in the country are in the hands of the emperor, and the main officials of the central and local governments are appointed and removed by the emperor. ④ The emperor system initiated by Qin Shihuang embodies the important features of China's feudal autocracy.

2. A relatively complete central official system: ① Qin Shihuang established a relatively complete central political organization on the basis of the official system in the Warring States period. (2) in the central, set up the prime minister, the suggestion and qiu, as the three highest positions in the central of the qin dynasty. The prime minister helped the emperor to handle the political affairs of the whole country, and the imperial adviser took charge of the ministers' memorials, issued the imperial edicts, and managed the state to supervise things. Qiu is in charge of national military affairs. Military affairs are completely controlled by the emperor.

3. Full implementation of the county system: ① During the Spring and Autumn Period, some vassal states set up counties in the newly annexed areas and counties in the border areas. (2) During the Shang Yang political reform in the Warring States Period, the enfeoffment was abolished and the county was established. (3) After the reunification of Qin, the enfeoffment system was abolished nationwide and the county system was implemented. (4) the county is the highest level of local administration below the central government, and the chief executive is the county magistrate. County is the lower administrative organ of the county, and the chief is called county magistrate or county magistrate. Below the county level, there are grass-roots administrative institutions such as townships and villages. ⑤ This pyramid-like ruling organization from the central to the local government in the Qin Dynasty has a clear division of official duties, that is, they cooperate with each other and contain each other, marking the establishment of feudal autocratic centralization of authority.

4. The function and influence of centralized system: ① Stabilize the border, safeguard national unity and expand the territory. It formed the first unified multi-ethnic feudal country in the history of China, the Qin Dynasty. (2) Promulgating laws, unified measurement, currency and writing, repairing Chi Dao and opening Lingqu are conducive to the development of feudal economy and culture and the formation of the Chinese nation with Huaxia nationality as the main body. (3) laid the basic pattern of China's feudal political system for more than two thousand years, which was used by feudal dynasties. (4) The despotism of Qin Shihuang put the people in a bad situation, which intensified class contradictions and led to the first large-scale peasant uprising in China's history, namely the Chen Sheng and Wu Guang Uprising.

III. Evolution of the political system from Han Dynasty to Yuan Dynasty

1. Evolution of the central political system: ① During the Han Dynasty, the central political system basically followed the Qin Dynasty system, which was called "Han inherited the Qin Dynasty system" in history. However, the harsh laws of the Qin Dynasty were abolished, resulting in some gains and losses. (2) the han dynasty emperor system, set up the prime minister in the central, the ancient and qiu, used to say "three fair". (3) In the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty used cloth as a photograph, attendants and secretaries around him as ministers, etc. to form a "Chinese dynasty", and the institutions with three officials and nine officials were called "foreign dynasties". (4) When Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty expanded the power of Shangshutai and became the central organization of decision-making. ⑤ During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, a system of three provinces, namely Shangshu Province, Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province, was formed. ⑥ In the Sui Dynasty, Shangshu Province, Neishi Province and Menxia Province were the highest ruling institutions in the central government. In the Tang Dynasty, the three provinces had a clear division of labor, and the power was divided into three parts. ⑦ During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, there were six departments of officials, households, rituals, soldiers, punishments and workers in Shangshu Province, and a six-department system in three provinces was established. At the beginning of the Song Dynasty, Zhongshumen was the highest administrative organ, and Privy Council was the highest military and political organ, which were collectively called the "Second House". After that, the assistant minister was added, and three secretaries were set up to manage the finances, weakening the power of the ministers. Pet-name ruby Yuan Dynasty integrated the political system of Han and Mongolia, and set up the Secretariat Province and the Privy Council in the central government, with the Secretariat Province as the highest administrative organ and exercising the functions and powers of prime minister; The Privy Council is the highest military organ, and the Xuan Zheng Yuan is also set up to direct religious affairs and manage Tibet.

2. Evolution of local political system: ① The Warring States and the Qin Dynasty implemented the county system, which was inherited in the early Han Dynasty, and at the same time, the vassal kingdom was enfeoffed, and the county system was parallel. The county chief and the prime minister are the chief executives of the county and the kingdom respectively. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the military and political power of the kingdom was relieved, and it was divided into 13 states, with each state as a monitoring area and a secretariat. ② During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the local administrative power and military power were gradually added to the secretariat, and by the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the state gradually evolved into a local administrative region. The local administrative division has changed from the county-level system to the state, county and county-level system. (3) At the beginning of Sui Dynasty, local administrative agencies overlapped, with more officials and fewer people. Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished the county level and formed a state-county two-level system. (4) The local administrative organs in the Tang Dynasty were the same as those in the Sui Dynasty, and Emperor Taizong divided the whole country into 1 roads. As a monitoring area, Tang Suzong changed the supervisor of the road to an observer, and the road gradually became an administrative entity above the county level. In the middle and late Tang Dynasty, a buffer region was set up, which led to a separatist situation. ⑤ In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, Song Taizu cut the power of local time and appointed civil servants as local officials. In Song Dynasty, the local political power was divided into two levels: prefectures and counties, and the "Tao" in Tang Dynasty was changed to "Road", which was above prefectures and counties. ⑥ The Yuan Dynasty practiced the provincial system in local areas. Under the provinces, there are roads, prefectures, prefectures and counties, and propaganda departments in remote ethnic areas. The establishment of the provincial system is a major change in the ancient local administrative system in China and the beginning of the provincial system in China. ⑦ From Han Dynasty to Yuan Dynasty, the central government strictly restricted local administration, and no independent administrative system was allowed to exist. Local officials must obey their superiors, local governments obey the central government and finally the monarch. Form a high degree of centralization.

central place

with the establishment of the Qin emperor system, the emperor assumed all the political, economic and military power in the country.

The central government set up a prime minister (decision-making), an imperial historian (supervision) and a military officer (military affairs)

which marked the establishment of feudal autocratic centralization of authority.

abolish enfeoffment, and set up counties, with county governors appointed by the emperor.

the Han dynasty inherited the Qin system, which changed somewhat.

At the beginning of the Han dynasty, there were three officials and nine ministers.

Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty: China and Korea were established, and the relative power was weakened.

Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty: Set up a desk for reading books, and the emperor took the overall power. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the county and state were in parallel, and the vassal power was large, posing a threat to the central government. In the later period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Zhou was set as the supervision area, and the secretariat was set up to supervise governors and local senior officials on behalf of the central government.

at the end of the eastern Han dynasty, there were three levels: state, county and county.

in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the system of Shangshu Province, Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province was gradually formed.

There are three provinces, namely, Shangshu Province, Civil History Province and Menxia Province, at the state and county levels

Zhongshu Province (decision-making), Menxia Province (deliberation) and Shangshu Province (implementation, consisting of six departments) in the Tang Dynasty, and the power is divided into three parts, and the three provinces contain and supervise each other to ensure the exclusive respect of the monarchy. Since then, it has been used in dynasties. At the state and county levels, Emperor Taizong established Daoism as a supervision area, and Tang Suzong Shidao became an administrative entity above the state and county. Form (Dao), state and county.

in the middle and late Tang dynasty, the power of our province was expanded, and it developed into a separatist situation.

Song Dynasty

The highest administrative organization, the second house under the book door

The highest military and political organization, the Privy Council

The three secretaries divided the financial power of the prime minister

The executive power of the prime minister was divided to participate in political affairs

The relative power was weakened, and the imperial power was further strengthened.

The local administrative system is Lu, Zhou and County

Yuan

It is a comprehensive political system of Han and Mongolia, with the Ministry of the Central Secretariat (administrative, in charge of six departments), the Privy Council (military) and the Xuan Zheng Yuan (religious and Tibetan affairs). In the provincial system, except for Hebei, Shanxi and Shandong, which are directly under the jurisdiction of Zhongshu province, the local government has Zhongshu province, with Pingzhang politics as the highest official and the provincial government has great power. Remote areas are managed by Xuanwei Department. The provincial system strengthens centralization and consolidates the unity of multi-ethnic countries. Its establishment is a major change in the local administrative system and the beginning of China's provincial system.

in Ming dynasty, the prime minister and Zhongshu province were abolished, and the national government affairs were managed in six parts, and the autocratic monarchy reached its peak.

Ming Taizu has set up Diange college students as attendants and consultants. The cabinet system was established when the ancestors became ancestors. Xuanzong gave the cabinet minister the right to draft the ticket.

The local government has three divisions: Chief Secretary (Administration), Metropolitan Command Division (Military and Political Affairs) and Inspection Division (Supervision).

in the early Qing dynasty, the power of the meeting of the ministers in charge of deliberation was higher than that of the cabinet and the six ministries, and the imperial power was greatly restricted.

during the reign of emperor Kangxi, the south study room was set up, and the cabinet, the meeting of ministers and ministers discussing state affairs, and the south study room were tripartite, and centralized in the emperor.

during Yongzheng, military department was appointed, and the minister of military affairs recorded and conveyed the emperor's will, and the autocratic monarchy reached its peak.

Fourth, the strengthening of absolute monarchy in Ming and Qing Dynasties

1. The abolition of the prime minister system: ① In the early Ming Dynasty, following the Yuan Dynasty system, the left and right prime ministers ruled over six ministries and managed the national administrative affairs. (2) Zhu Yuanzhang, Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty, abolished the book province in the bank and set up the Chief Secretary, the Capital Command Department and the Inspection Department, which were in charge of local administration, military and political affairs and supervision, and were collectively called the "three departments". Later, he ordered the abolition of Zhongshu Province and the Prime Minister, and managed the national government affairs in six parts. Since then, the Prime Minister system has been abolished. The absolute monarchy has reached a new height.

2. Establishment of the Cabinet: ① After Ming Taizu abolished the Prime Minister, he set up a college student in Diange as a squire consultant. (2) When the Ming Dynasty became the ancestor, officials of the Imperial Academy were selected to join Wenyuan Pavilion to participate in the decision-making of confidential affairs, which was called "Cabinet" in history. The cabinet system was formally established. (3) when emperor Xuanzong was proclaimed, he was also granted the right to draft a cabinet college ticket. (4) The cabinet of the Ming Dynasty was never a statutory administrative or decision-making body at the central level, but a chamberlain organization that provided advice to the emperor. ⑤ Cabinet is the product of the strengthening of autocratic monarchy, and it can't restrict the imperial power.

3. The peak of autocratic monarchy: ① After Nurhachi established the post-Jin regime, he practiced the tradition of tribal nobles discussing politics together. (2) Huang taiji set up a discussion meeting with Wang Dachen. There is also a cabinet with six departments. The power of the meeting of Wang Dachen is above the six ministries. Imperial power was greatly restricted. (3) After Emperor Kangxi came to power, he set up the South Study Room, and the central organization was divided into three parts. The cabinet, the meeting of discussing the affairs of Wang Dachen and the South Study Room were three pillars, which restricted each other and finally centralized in the emperor. (4) Yong Zhengdi, and military department, selected by the emperor trusted minister of Manchu served as minister of military aircraft. The meeting of Wang Dachen and the south study room existed in name only, and then they were cancelled one after another. The cabinet also existed in name only, and the autocratic monarchy reached its peak. ⑤ The rulers of the Qing Dynasty inherited the Ming system and pushed the autocratic monarchy to its peak. The emperor was not only the highest legislator, but also the highest chief executive and the highest judicial officer, and was free from restraint and supervision. This absolute monarchy greatly hinders the progress of society and the growth of capitalism.

what impact did the strengthening of absolute monarchy in Ming and Qing dynasties have on China society?

positive role: it is conducive to the unification and consolidation of multi-ethnic countries, social stability, economic development and cultural prosperity, and provides political guarantee for the emergence of the prosperous era of Kanggan.

Negative effects: The imperial power expanded extremely, which became an important factor hindering social progress. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, bourgeois revolution or reform (the glorious revolution of Britain, the American War of Independence, etc.) took place in Britain and other western countries, which established bourgeois rule and promoted the development of capitalism. The unprecedented strengthening of autocratic monarchy in Ming and Qing Dynasties greatly hindered the social progress. Since then, the development of China society has lagged far behind the West.

Unit 2 Political System of Ancient Greece and Rome

Cradle of Five Greek Civilizations

Features-Influence of Geographical Environment Factors

① Economy: Surrounded by water on three sides, there are many harbors, especially islands on the route to West Asia, which is beneficial to navigation and cultural exchange. Therefore, Greece's commodity production and overseas trade are more developed.

② Foreign relations: Because navigation and navy were of great significance to ancient Greece, the ancient Greeks with small land and large population often colonized and expanded overseas by virtue of this advantage.

③ Politics: Greek city-states are characterized by small countries and few people, and each state has long been independent and autonomous; The citizen politics carried out by the Greek city-state enabled the citizens of the city-state to enjoy more full political rights; In particular, the democracy in Athens provided valuable experience for future generations.

Democracy in Athens

Solon: According to the amount of property, citizens are divided into four grades. The citizens' assembly is the highest authority, and citizens at all levels can participate. The reform shook the hereditary privileges of the old gentry and nobles, guaranteed the democratic rights of citizens, and laid the foundation for democracy in Athens.

Clerides: set up a council of 5 people and take turns to govern.

Pericles: (Democracy reached its peak.

significance: ① innovation: it provides a new form of collective management for mankind, creates a democratic operation mode, and accumulates valuable experience for the development of democratic politics in later generations.

② Advantages: Most people make decisions, which makes the problem more comprehensive; Most public officials are elected and are under the supervision of the masses, which reduces the possibility of abusing power for personal gain.

③ Civilization progress: it promoted the development of cultural undertakings, making Greek civilization an important civilization center in the ancient West and even the whole world

Limitations: ① It is only for citizens, not citizens, such as foreign immigrants, slaves and citizens of other countries, who have no right to democracy;

② Democracy of male citizens;

(3) All public offices are elected and drawn by lots, which may lead to extreme democratization and the decline of democracy.

the origin and development of six Roman laws

The Twelve Copper Tables Law: including civil law, criminal law and litigation procedure, is basically a compilation of unwritten customary laws in the past. He clearly defended private property rights and the vested interests of the nobility

Meaning: ① the victory of the common people; (Reason: Because there is a written law, you have to judge and sentence according to the law, and the nobles can't interpret the customary law as they used to.

② This law is the origin of Roman law and the basic law of Rome;

③ Limitations: The fundamental purpose is to safeguard the interests of slave owners.