At the end of 15, the extensive development and continuous expansion of commodity economy in western European countries made gold the most important means of payment in commodity trade, and gold in eastern countries became the dream of western Europeans. But at this time, the Ottoman Empire controlled the main trade routes between the East and the West, blocking the traditional trade routes of western European countries to the East; Western European aristocrats and emerging businessmen who are crazy about pursuing oriental wealth (gold, jewelry, spices, silk, etc.). There is an urgent need to explore a direct sea route to India and China. Portugal and Spain, located in the southwest of Europe and bordering the Atlantic Ocean, started overseas adventures and colonial activities earlier, mastered advanced navigation knowledge and shipbuilding technology, and possessed certain financial resources, which became the starting point for opening up new routes.

The opening of the new air route has changed the European trade center, and the main trade route has shifted from the Mediterranean coast to the Atlantic coast, which has promoted the development of the Italian economy. This is also one reason why the seeds of European capitalism first appeared in Italy. At the same time, it has also achieved commercial and economic prosperity in Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Netherlands and other countries. European countries joined the colonial ranks, western European colonists plundered wealth from the colonies, and European countries quickly became rich, forming a new bourgeoisie, which accelerated the disintegration of European feudal system and the germination and development of capitalist relations of production. It promoted overseas expansion and the initial formation of the world market, and promoted the primitive accumulation of capital. At the same time, it broke the closed and isolated state around the world, linked the old continent with the new continent, and the world history took a key step from decentralization to integration.

After the opening of the new sea route, Britain became the Atlantic shipping center, capitalism rose and developed, and the growth of the bourgeoisie and upstarts made them demand capitalist political power and economic development. The feudal autocratic rule of James I and Charles I in Stuart dynasty seriously hindered the development of capitalism, harmed the interests of the bourgeoisie and new noble, and intensified social contradictions. From the Scottish people's uprising to 1689, the promulgation of the bill of rights marked the establishment of the constitutional monarchy bourgeois rule. The British bourgeois revolution was a great victory of the capitalist system over the feudal system in human history, which cleared the way for the rapid development of British capitalism, kicked off the bourgeois revolutionary movement in Europe and North America, promoted the development of world history and was the beginning of modern world history. Long-term political stability appeared after the British bourgeois revolution, which created a good environment for the smooth development of capitalism, but it did not fundamentally solve the backwardness of the political and economic system. But to unite with reactionary nobles to suppress the British people's uprising. The British bourgeois revolution greatly promoted the anti-feudal efforts of European countries, played an enlightening role in bourgeois ideology and had an important impact on world history. However, the British bourgeois revolution is an incomplete revolution after all, and it has not completely eradicated the pernicious influence of feudalism from the political system. But its influence on 1789 French Revolution is obvious. Britain became the largest colonial empire. Expanding overseas markets, enclosure movement and colonial expansion provided capital; During the period of workshop handicraft industry, a lot of scientific and technological knowledge was accumulated, which promoted the industrial revolution in Britain. The completion of the first industrial revolution, the formation of the capitalist world market and the formation of a unified domestic market have promoted new discoveries in science, technology and natural science.

The promotion of science and technology by the first industrial revolution, the new discovery of natural science and the acquisition of funds (capital) needed by some countries all promoted the formation and development of the second industrial revolution.

The United States was one step ahead in the second scientific and technological revolution. After the Civil War, the abolition of the plantation system in the south created conditions for the capitalist development of the whole country. The rapid development of shipbuilding and machinery manufacturing, the completion of four transcontinental railways, the reclamation of large areas of land in the west and the disappearance of frontiers have promoted the formation and expansion of a unified domestic market. In the process of developing the midwest, the far west and the south, all regions have developed industries with local characteristics. The influx of foreign immigrants provided abundant labor force, which enabled North America to carry out agricultural production on a large scale. /kloc-agricultural mechanization developed rapidly in the second half of the 0/9th century. From 1860- 19 16, the cultivated land area has increased from 407 million mu to 879 million mu, the improved land area has more than tripled, and the output of wheat and corn has increased by about 3 times. Large-scale production in agriculture has crowded out and merged small-scale production. In the north, which is dominated by industry, agriculture is more and more intensive. In other areas, the number of large farms is gradually increasing. In 1900, half of the total agricultural products in the United States were produced by large farmers in16, forming the development path of American-style agricultural capitalism.

/kloc-in the second half of the 0/9th century, there were important inventions and breakthroughs in the field of science and technology, among which the application of electricity was the first; 1876 A.G: Bell invented the telephone;1886t.a. Edison made the electric light; 1892 The Duria brothers successfully trial-produced the car; 1903 The Wright brothers successfully trial-produced the plane and sailed. The wide application of electricity in industry has led to the all-round development of the American economy. In 1880, the proportion of industry in the national GDP exceeded that of agriculture, and the total industrial output value jumped from the fourth place in the world in 1860 to the first place in 1894.

The victory of the industrial bourgeoisie in the American Civil War provided political guarantee for the development of the industrial revolution. The large-scale development of the western region has expanded the demand for commodities, and the surplus capital in Europe has been continuously flowing, and the Eurasian immigrants have brought advanced science and technology. Many inventions of Edison, Ford, Wright, Bell, etc. have made the United States in a leading position in the fields of electricity, transportation and telecommunications. Make the United States a highly developed capitalist country.

After the Second World War, the new scientific and technological revolution posed a severe challenge to contemporary socialism. In the late 1940s, the United States and other capitalist countries took the lead in setting off the third scientific and technological revolution, which was led by the invention and application of atomic energy and electronic information technology. The development of the post-war new scientific and technological revolution has greatly changed the external conditions for the development of world socialism, which not only poses a severe challenge to world socialism, but also provides new opportunities and impetus for its development.

After World War II, almost all of Europe was in ruins, and rich western Europe was no exception. Germany, as one of the initiators of World War II, was subjected to fierce artillery fire by the allied forces, which was even more devastated. Most adult men died in the war or became prisoners of war, which made their domestic labor force extremely scarce. Nevertheless, the Germans have created a world-famous economic miracle on this ruin and become the third largest economic power in the world.

Before the end of the war, Germany had as many high-tech talents as it wanted. Strong research and development ability, advanced production equipment and high product technology. Although many factories were destroyed by the war, a large number of scientific and technological talents and experienced skilled workers are still there, without causing a technical failure, which has made great contributions to future reconstruction. Marshall plan. The official name of the plan is "European Reconstruction Plan". After the war, Europe's economy was in ruins, especially Germany. Production has not resumed, the economy is facing collapse, and people's livelihood is also a big problem. With the widespread poverty leading to productism, a wave gradually emerged. Marshall believes that the only way to eliminate the capitalist expansion in Europe is to restore the normal life of the European economy and people as soon as possible. After Marshall's efforts, the US Congress approved the plan. At this time, the predecessor of the European Economic Cooperation Organization, the European Economic Cooperation Committee, was established. From 1948 to 195438+0, 19565438 dollars, it has helped to restore industrial and agricultural production, stabilize finance and expand trade in the form of direct aid and loans, and made great contributions. During this period, the GNP of several western European countries increased to 15-25%, which greatly promoted the rapid renewal of chemical, engineering and steel industries, and also introduced advanced enterprise management concepts from the United States. Germany is of course the biggest beneficiary. But this is not the generosity of the United States, but a last resort to compete with the former Soviet Union for Europe. Of course, the original social market economy, perfect laws and excellent vocational education are also inseparable.

Regional economic groups, which began to appear in the 1950s, have now become an important development trend of the world economy. This is also the adjustment and change of international economic relations. The disintegration of the bipolar world and the rapid development of world multipolarization have provided a more relaxed external environment for the development of the world economy. Although local turmoil continues, it is still moving towards peace and development on the whole. 2 1 century is an era of more intense competition in science and technology. Whoever owns high technology will occupy a favorable position in the future international competition and will have more rights in the future international relations. Therefore, we should speed up the development of science and technology, and handle well the relations with other countries, so as to be invincible in the new century.