County is the lower administrative organ of the county. The chief of a county is called a county magistrate or county magistrate, who is appointed by the court. His main task is to govern the people, and to manage politics, finance, justice, prison proceedings and military service. The county magistrate inspects the work of the county magistrate and county magistrate through annual assessment and peacetime inspection.
Laws and decrees: Laws and decrees are basically the current criminal laws. Laws are made up of "orders" of separate laws and regulations. As for "decrees", the imperial edicts of separate laws and regulations are classified into "decrees A", "decrees B" and "decrees C" according to their importance. It is equivalent to a collection of imperial edicts, and is called "order" for short. Therefore, as far as the written law is concerned, the "order" can be regarded as an additional law of the law, or a secondary law, and violation of the "order" should be punished as well as violation of the law. Therefore, the Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties can be regarded as different periods of law and order.
Third secretary: official name. After the mid-Tang Dynasty, the Ministry of Household Affairs, the Ministry of Taxation and the Ministry of Salt and Iron were set up, in charge of rent and tax, fiscal revenue and expenditure and salt and iron monopoly, which were collectively called the three divisions. In 926 AD, the Prime Minister of Tang Ming Zongwei was in charge of the Third Division. In 930, three ambassadors were formally established. Followed by the northern song dynasty. 1082, the position was classified as the book of ministers of the household department. Division III: Different generations refer to different things. (1) the eastern han dynasty said qiu, Stuart, sikong for three division. (2) In the Tang Dynasty, it was called the Imperial Scholar, Zhongshu and Menxia as three divisions. (3) From the late Tang Dynasty to the Song Dynasty, the Salt and Iron Department, the Household Department and the Expenditure Department were called three divisions, which were in charge of the national finance and later abolished. (4) The Jin Dynasty called the three departments of advising farmers, salt and iron, and supporting households as three divisions, which were later abolished. ⑤ In the Ming Dynasty, the commanders, envoys and judges of all provinces were collectively called the three divisions. ⑥ At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the deployment or civil affairs departments, the provincial judges' departments or the formulation and promotion departments of the provinces were collectively called the three departments.
Four-level and three-trial system: by the Han Dynasty, it was divided into four trial levels: county, county, Tingwei and emperor. In theory, it could be appealed to the emperor all the time. During the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty, the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it was generally a five-level and five-trial system for counties, counties, prefectures, Tingwei (or Dali) and emperors. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the system of four levels and four trials was generally implemented. During the Song and Ming Dynasties, it was a five-level and five-trial system. In the early Qing dynasty, the system of six levels and six trials was implemented.
Courtesy: "Courtesy" is the meeting of courtiers, which is the deliberation system of the Ming Dynasty court. The things discussed by the courtiers in the Ming Dynasty are all political affairs of "great interest" and must be discussed by courtiers. The specific way of deliberation is mostly in the form of discussing issues by departments. In Ming Dynasty, the result of the deliberation must be played to the emperor. When the deliberation opinions are not consistent, the emperor should be summarized to make a ruling. In the Ming dynasty, the content of the court discussion was mainly about rank, sacrifice, official system, personnel, finance, military and so on. The number of people attending the deliberation varies according to the content discussed, ranging from more than 30 people to more than 100 people.
Prime Minister's Office: The Prime Minister's Office is in charge of foreign affairs, trade and other westernization matters. It consists of five units: Britain, France, Russia, the United States and Haiphong, with Tongwen Museum and General Administration of Customs and Taxation as its subsidiary bodies. Its establishment strengthened the ties between the Qing Dynasty and foreign countries, but it was more conducive to the foreign powers to control the internal affairs and diplomacy of the Qing Dynasty, which marked the beginning of semi-colonization of the central organs of the Qing Dynasty.
Three provinces and six departments: three provinces: Zhongshu Province, Menxia Province and Shangshu Province. Six departments: official department, household department, ritual department, military department, criminal department and industrial department.
The system of three provinces and six departments was formed after the Western Han Dynasty, which was formally established in the Sui Dynasty and further improved in the Tang Dynasty.
The three provinces in the Tang Dynasty were Zhongshu Province, Menxia Province and Shangshu Province. Zhongshu Province is responsible for making orders, with two officials in charge of it, two officials in charge of it, and two officials in charge of it. The imperial edicts passed by Zhongshu and the government were handed over to Shangshu Province for implementation by the emperor. Shangshu province is responsible for implementation, with one chief Shangshuling and one deputy chief left and right servant shooting.
Shangshu province has six departments, namely, officials, households, ceremonies, soldiers, criminals and workers, and the chief minister, Shangshu, manages all kinds of political affairs in six departments, and each department has four divisions, accounting for 24 divisions.
The governors of the three provinces discuss state affairs and hold the post of prime minister. The place where they discuss state affairs is called the government hall. Since the Sui Dynasty, the position of Shangshuling was not established (Yangdi once named Yang Su as Shangshuling), and Emperor Taizong once held this position. Therefore, after that, the Tang Dynasty no longer gave people the position of Shangshuling. The left and right servants shot the ministers to save trouble, and also served as prime ministers.
Sanya: the organization in charge of the imperial army in Song Dynasty. There are three divisions, namely, the front division of the temple, the division of Shi Weidong's army, the division of the bodyguard's pro-army, and the division of the bodyguard's pro-army. In the late Tang Dynasty, it was customary to call the pro-soldiers of the buffer region the Ya (official) soldiers. Most emperors from the Five Dynasties to the Song Dynasty won the throne from the buffer region, so they were called Sanyan. The officers of Sanya are called Dianshuai, Ma Shuai and Bushuai respectively, which are collectively called Sanshuai.
Tingtui: the way to be an official in Ming Dynasty. Senior officials were appointed by the emperor on the recommendation of the minister, and they were called Tingtui. The cabinet college students, the ministers of the official department were appointed by the court or the emperor's special decree, and the ministers of the official department, together with the three products, were promoted by the official court, while the foreign officials were promoted by the governor and the governor. It was abolished during the reign of Kangxi in Qing Dynasty.
1. The characteristics of the procuratorial system in the Han Dynasty are mainly manifested in two aspects:
First, it has implemented vertical supervision from top to bottom. Local inspectors are directly under the command of the central supervisory organization and appointed and removed by the central government. As the "eyes and ears of the emperor", they effectively prevent the further development and expansion of local separatist forces and play a role in strengthening centralization.
Secondly, the supervision system in Han Dynasty implemented vertical supervision from top to bottom, which made the supervision power and administrative power gradually separated, which can be said to be a great progress in history. Because of this, collusion between local officials and the secretariat is rare, which has achieved good supervision effect, and the central government has also reduced collusion between the county magistrate and the secretariat to counter the crisis of the central government. Therefore, in the contest between the central government and the local government in the Han Dynasty, the central government was in a relative advantage, which had a great relationship with the design of the post of secretariat.
2. The strategic policy of "easy before difficult" and "south before north"
After Liu Bang established the Western Han Dynasty on the ruins of Qin, his first task was to restore the bureaucratic system and ensure the normal operation of the state machine. In the central government, he continued to implement the bureaucratic system of "three fairs" (the three are collectively called "three fairs") with the prime minister, Qiu and the imperial historian as the core. Among them, Yushifu is the deputy prime minister, who also takes full responsibility for supervision, and is the highest chief of the supervision organization Yushifu. At the same time, the Qin system was used, and when there was a vacancy in the post of prime minister, it could be filled by the imperial doctor. According to statistics, among the 43 prime ministers in the Western Han Dynasty, there were 25 who were replaced by the Imperial Physician. The position of the ancient censors is very high, especially those with outstanding ability and political integrity among them.
5. In the rural areas of past dynasties, because he couldn't stop the surplus, every farmer maintained a little economy. Therefore, the reason why the stable structure of China has always been stable is that the regime used a minimum cost control method, that is, the imperial power did not stop at the county level, and the regime was only located at the county level. "The imperial power is not lower than the county, and the county is a clan. All clans are autonomous, and autonomy is ethical."
6. In 22 1 year BC, Qin unified China, which marked the development stage of feudal society, that is, the beginning of feudal landlord society. On the basis of the original system, Qin Shihuang established an autocratic centralization of authority based on the private ownership of land by landlords. This system has the following characteristics:
(1) emperor system. Determine the name of the supreme ruler as the emperor, and Ying Zheng claimed to be the first emperor, commanding the state power.
(2) The system of "three publics and nine ministers". The central government set up a prime minister, an ancient censor and Qiu, which are called "three fairs" to help the emperor handle national political affairs, supervise officials and manage the military respectively. There is also a "Jiuqing" under the "Three Publics", which is in charge of the government affairs of various departments respectively.
(3) County system. The county has guards, commandants and censors, and there are counties under the county. Below the county are townships and villages, and the grass-roots public security institutions are called "pavilions". The main officials of counties and counties are appointed and removed by the emperor, and they must absolutely obey and carry out the emperor's orders.
(B) the development of authoritarian centralization of authority
At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang, the ancestor of Emperor Gaozu, inherited the Qin system, and there were three officials and nine ministers under the emperor. At the local level, the "parallel system of counties and countries" is implemented, that is, on the one hand, counties are established, on the other hand, children with the same surname are divided into five, and vassal countries are established. Later, the vassal States gradually became the local forces of the five kingdoms. During the reign of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing, a series of measures were taken to eliminate the threat of local forces to the central government. Emperor Wen adopted Jia Yi's suggestion that "many princes should be built but less powerful", and divided Qi into six small kingdoms and Huainan into three small kingdoms to weaken its strength. Emperor Jingdi adopted Chao Cuo's suggestion of "cutting vassals" and cut down the fiefs of several vassals, which led to the "Seven Kingdoms Rebellion" led by the prince of Wu and Liu Bi. After the "Seven Kingdoms Rebellion" was pacified, Emperor Jingdi ordered the abolition of the feudal lords' civil rights, reduced the feudal lords' ruling institutions, lowered the rank of the kingdom's official posts, and made it a first-class local administrative unit directly managed by the central government, which basically solved the shortcomings of Liu Bang's implementation of the feudal lords system and further strengthened centralization.
Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty adopted a series of measures to strengthen centralization, mainly including:
(1) Reform the central system. A. establish China and the DPRK. In order to reduce the power of the Prime Minister, the "China-DPRK" was formed by the lower-level trusted officials and attendants around the emperor, forming an intra-palace decision-making body, also known as the "Inner DPRK". Rely on the inner court and weaken the relative rights. B. set up a captain of the secretariat and sili. In order to strengthen local control, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty divided the whole country into 13 states, and each state set up a secretariat to regularly inspect all counties and countries, monitor the behavior of county officials and local strongmen, and ensure the implementation of the central government decrees. Set up a captain in the capital to picket the officials in the capital. C. the decree of granting favors and the law of supplementary benefits. Divide the vassal States smaller and smaller, forbid the vassal kings to recruit guests, and reduce the power of the vassal States. D. strengthening the rule of law. Supplement Han Law and reuse "cruel officials".
Liu Che, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (before 156-87)
(2) establish a service army and a guard. In the early Western Han Dynasty, the conscription system was implemented, and the central government did not have troops stationed for a long time. Emperor Kaidi of Han Dynasty set out to form professional soldiers to serve the army and the Guards. There are three main branches of the army, namely, Qimen, Feather Forest and Feather Forest Orphans. There are eight Guards, each with about 700 foot soldiers, led by eight captains, so they are called "Eight Commanders".
(3) reforming finance. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty carried out a large-scale financial reform to increase fiscal revenue. There are four measures to reform: a. Reform the currency system. Private casting of money is prohibited, and five baht is uniformly cast by the state. B. salt and iron monopoly. Collecting salt, iron and wine belongs to the official camp. C. both losses and leveling. The law of equal loss is the policy of the state to purchase and transport loans in various places in order to seek benefits. The stabilization law is the policy of the state to stabilize prices. D. calculate and sue. Counting is to collect property tax. It also ordered a "confession" to encourage those who concealed property and did not report it.
(4) oust a hundred schools of thought and respect Confucianism alone. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's suggestion, deposed hundreds of schools, respected Confucianism alone, and strengthened ideological rule. He also set up Imperial College in Chang 'an to train talents and select officials.
In this way, centralization of authority in the Western Han Dynasty was further strengthened, which was conducive to the unity and consolidation of the country.
After the establishment of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Liu Xiu restored and developed the despotism of centralization of authority in the Western Han Dynasty. Liu Xiu's strengthening of centralization is the continuation and development of strengthening centralization in the Western Han Dynasty.
(1) Retire the hero and enter the official. Liu Xiu respected the heroes who followed him in farmland, but relieved them of their real power. Choose officials who are familiar with the laws and regulations and know how to govern the country.
(2) Although the three fairs are set, the matter belongs to the Taige. Weaken the power of Stuart, Sikong and Taiwei, and strengthen the power of Shangshutai.
(3) Strengthen the supervision system. Restore and strengthen three sets of supervision institutions: Yushitai, Sili Captain and State Secretariat.
(4) Centralize military power. Weaken local military power and strengthen central military power. There are four armies in the central government and two in the capital, namely the South Army and the North Army. There are two in the local area, namely Liyangying and Yongying.
Liu Xiu, Emperor Guangwu of Han Dynasty (6 -57 years ago)
Due to the expansion of the gentry's power, there was a split situation in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. In a sense, this is the failure of centralization. However, in various separatist regions, the rulers have also implemented measures to strengthen centralization.
(C) the perfection of autocratic centralization
The unification of Sui Dynasty is the second great unification in Chinese history. After Emperor Wendi ascended the throne, he began to reform and reform the state affairs.
(1) Three provinces and six departments. In terms of central institutions, a system of three provinces and six departments has been established. The three provinces, namely, the province of civil history, the province of Menxia and the province of Shangshu, are responsible for drafting, reviewing and implementing government decrees respectively; The six departments are the official department, the people's department, the ritual department, the military department, the criminal department, and the industrial department, which respectively manage the examination and appointment of officials, household registration finance, etiquette imperial examination, military and political affairs, criminal law, and engineering construction. Six ministers are called Shangshu, which is under the jurisdiction of Shangshu Province.
(2) state and county system. The local administrative agencies have changed the state, county and county levels to the state and county levels. The assessment of local officials has also been strengthened, and it is stipulated that local officials with more than nine categories shall be appointed and removed by the central government.
(3) Reform the system of government soldiers. The general household was made up of civilian households, and the household registration was changed to state and county management. Like ordinary civilian households, they were allocated land according to the land equalization order and engaged in production. From then on, the government-soldier system was combined with the land equalization system, and the original system of separating soldiers from civilians became a system of soldiers, farmers and Quan Yi, and soldiers were integrated into agriculture.
(4) Established the imperial examination system. Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished the Nine-Graded Zhengzhi system since Wei and Jin Dynasties, and local state and county schools elected outstanding students to the imperial court for examination every year, and they were hired according to their achievements. When Emperor Yangdi was in the Sui Dynasty, the establishment of Jinshi Branch marked the emergence of the imperial examination system. The imperial examination is to select scholars by subject and select officials by subject examination. Influence: Preventing powerful landlords from holding political power opened up a way for commoners landlords to participate in politics and expanded the political foundation of the landlord class regime.
(5) Compiling the Law of Opening the Emperor.
In the Tang Dynasty, the Sui system was followed and improved, which further improved the autocratic centralization system.
(1) Central and local official system. In the central government, the main institutions are three provinces, six departments, one station, five prisons and nine temples. Locally, the two-level system of state and county is still implemented. In the reign of Emperor Taizong, in order to strengthen the control of local governments, the whole country was divided into ten monitoring areas, called Daoism, and in the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, it was divided into fifteen Daoism.
(2) the government soldier system. The government-soldier system in the Tang Dynasty was a system of combining soldiers with agriculture and integrating soldiers with agriculture. The basic unit of government soldiers is called Zhechong House (also known as the military house), and the military house belongs to the Twelve Guards and Six Rates respectively. Twelve guards directly obey the emperor, and six are subordinate to the prince. The soldiers led by the military government are called guards. Guards usually engage in agricultural production, practice in slack seasons, pay no rent and refuse to obey the corvee, but they should take turns to stay in the capital or guard the border. In case of war, you should bring your own clothes, food and equipment and be called out. The generals who led the troops were all appointed temporarily. After the war, "the soldiers scattered in the government will return to the DPRK." Function: It helps to prevent the generals and soldiers from dominating. 40% of the folding houses are concentrated in Guanzhong area, which makes the court have strong military strength and consolidates the unity of the country.
Li Shimin, Emperor Taizong (599 -649)
(3) imperial examination system. The imperial examination system, which was founded in the Sui Dynasty, was further developed and perfected in the Tang Dynasty, and became the main method for selecting officials. The imperial examinations in the Tang Dynasty were divided into regular examinations and routine examinations. Often, exams are held every year, and the subjects are mainly Ming Jing, Jinshi, Ming Fa, Ming Shu and so on. Often cited candidates have two sources, one is a student, that is, those who are recommended by schools at all levels and classes; Second, rural tribute, that is, self-learners selected through state and county examinations. Candidates are mainly concentrated in Ming Jing and Jinshi. It is relatively easy to test Confucian classics in Ming Classics. Jinshi mainly tests poetry and political theory, which is very difficult, and it is also the main way to be a senior official, so it is the most valued. Chang Ju was presided over by the official department at the beginning, and later by the ritual department. After Chang Ju passed the examination, he only obtained the qualification of being an official, and he must pass the official department examination (interpretation of brown test) before he can be awarded an official. The exam is a temporary exam to collect extraordinary talents, and it is not often held. There are more than 100 kinds of subjects, such as being virtuous and outspoken, being both talented and knowledgeable, and being practical. Generally, scholars and officials can take the exam, and those who are admitted are superior to official positions or promotion. The imperial examination system is conducive to the participation of landlords in politics in commoners, and further expands the class foundation of feudal rule.
(4) law. There are four legal forms in Tang dynasty: law, order, style and form. The Law of the Tang Dynasty is the earliest existing complete feudal code in China.
4) Strengthening the centralization of absolutism
Unification of Northern Song Dynasty
(1) political system: in the central government, the prime minister is in charge of political affairs, and the chief position is called "Tongping Affairs under the Chinese Book" (hereinafter referred to as "Tongping Affairs"), and the deputy position is called "Participating in Political Affairs". In addition, the Privy Council was set up to take charge of military affairs and three divisions were set up to take charge of finance, which narrowed the relative power and marked the further improvement of imperial power. At the local level, the system of replacing military commanders with civil servants as local chief executives is implemented; The county magistrate was originally appointed by the local government and was appointed by the court; Under the state official, there is another judge, named deputy, which is actually a mutual restraint.
(2) Military system: The military power of the imperial general Shi Shouxin and others was relieved by the method of "relieving the military power with a glass of wine". Incorporate local elite soldiers into the imperial army, leaving only some compartments with low combat effectiveness. The imperial army was directly controlled by the central government, stationed in the capital, and took turns guarding the border areas. He also created a "more defensive law" for the imperial army, which made the soldiers unfamiliar with each other and would not specialize in soldiers, which was convenient for the court to control.
Zhao Kuangyin, Song Taizu (927 -976)
(3) Finance and law: In the Northern Song Dynasty, the local financial power was regulated by the transshipment court. Set up some criminal prisons in various roads to take charge of justice. All death sentences must be reported to the central authorities for review and approval, and judicial power will be returned to the central authorities.
The Yuan Dynasty ended the separation of political power since the Five Dynasties and achieved national reunification. However, in the Yuan Dynasty, ethnic minorities occupied the Central Plains, and in order to maintain their unified situation, measures were also taken to strengthen centralization.
(1) Central system. The central government set up the Central Secretariat to take charge of administration, the Privy Council to take charge of military power and the Imperial Office to take charge of supervision. The officials of Zhongshu Province and Privy Council were later led by the Crown Prince. In addition, Xuan Zheng Yuan is set up to be in charge of Buddhism and Tubo affairs, Tong Zheng Yuan is set up to be in charge of post stations, and will be a craftsman in charge of the hospital.
(2) provincial system. The local government in the Yuan Dynasty mainly set up a provincial book, referred to as a provincial book. Today, Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi and other places are called "belly" and directly belong to the province of Zhongshu. In addition, there are ten provinces, namely Lingbei, Liaoyang, Henan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Gansu, Yunnan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Huguang. Organizations in all provinces are modeled after those in Zhongshu Province, with Prime Minister (but the example is not permanent), Pingzhang politics, You Cheng, Zuo Cheng, and Shenzhi politics, etc., to handle the government affairs of a province, and all civil affairs, military and political affairs are in charge.
The provincial system in the Yuan Dynasty consolidated the unity of the country politically, and ensured the centralization of power in the administrative system, which had a great influence on later generations. After the yuan dynasty, the name of the province has been in use.
(E) the extreme centralization of absolutism
After Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty, he further strengthened the centralization of absolutism, and made the absolutism of centralization of authority get a high development.
(1) Administratively, in the central government, Ming Taizu, under the pretext of Hu Weiyong's case, revoked the province of Zhongshu and the Prime Minister, distributed the relative rights to six departments, and also set up a college student to serve as an adviser to the emperor. At the local level, in order to strengthen local control and abolish the province, Ming Taizu has set up three departments (the Department of Undertaking Propaganda and Making Bureaux, the Department of Submitting Sentences and Making Judges, and the Department of Commanding Ambassadors) to take charge of local administration, justice, and military and political affairs. The three chiefs are not affiliated with each other and are directly responsible to the emperor. Influence: The abolition of the Prime Minister means the further strengthening of imperial power. The absolute authority of the monarch is guaranteed from the system; During the reign of Emperor Chengzu in the Ming Dynasty, a cabinet system was formed, and the central and local governments were completely controlled by the emperor.
(2) On the military side, in the central government, Ming Taizu set up a five-army Dudufu, which was in charge of the relieving with the Ministry of War and contained each other. Ming Taizu also established the system of health centers, and all the health centers and the commanders belonging to the provinces were under the jurisdiction of the Dudufu of the Fifth Army of the Central Committee. Influence: The generals and generals of the Ministry of War, the Governor's Office and the Health Institute could not monopolize the military power, and the military power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor.
Zhu Yuanzhang (A.D.1328-1398)
(3) In terms of supervision, Ming Taizu changed Yushitai to Douchayuan as the central supervisory organ. Duchayuan, Dali Temple and the Ministry of Punishment, the central judicial organ, are collectively called the "Three Legal Departments". Cases that cannot be decided by the "three divisions" shall be decided by the emperor. In order to monitor officials and suppress people's resistance, Ming Taizu set up the Royal Guards, and set up the "East Factory" in the Ming Dynasty, and set up the "West Factory" in the middle of the Ming Dynasty. The Royal Guards, the East Factory and the West Factory are all secret service agencies, collectively called "Factory Guards". In the Ming Dynasty, there was another penalty called "Tingzhang", that is, the emperor tried to hold officials accountable in the temple. Influence: The national judicial power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor, and the establishment of factory and health institutions was an unprecedented manifestation of the strengthening of The Ming dynasty emperors's autocracy.
(4) Schools and imperial examinations, which were used by schools in the Ming Dynasty to cultivate talents, were used to recruit talents every second. The school is called imperial academy in the central government, also known as Sinology and Imperial College. At the local level, there are government, state and county schools. In the imperial examination, the examination is divided into two levels, the lower level is the provincial examination, and the higher level is the examination and palace examination. The content of the exam is the four books and five classics of Confucianism. Candidates are not allowed to exert their independent opinions, and the style is "eight-part essay". Influence: stereotyped writing of scholars bound the intellectuals' thoughts and strengthened the feudal monarchy.
(5) Daming Law and Daguan. Revise the law and impose severe punishment on it.
Following the political system of the Ming Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty reformed and further strengthened the centralization of absolutism, reaching its peak.
(1) Central system. In the early Qing Dynasty, the cabinet was still the central organ of the government, but its power was getting smaller and smaller. Outside the cabinet, there is also a meeting of ministers to discuss military affairs. Kangxi set up the south study room to divide the power of the cabinet. When Yongzheng carried out the memorial system, the power of the cabinet was even weaker. Military department was established in the seventh year of Yongzheng. Since then, all confidential policies have been handled by military department, becoming the highest authority in power. However, military department has no quota, and has always been in the position of a temporary organization in form. The position of minister of military affairs has no institutional provisions, but it is only to serve orders, which is more conducive to the centralization of power by the emperor. The central organization has six departments in charge of political affairs, and the Ministry of Punishment, Duchayuan and Dali Temple are called "three law departments" to hear major cases. Another Li Fan Yuan is set up to manage minority affairs. The internal affairs office was set up to manage the royal affairs, and the minister was in charge, which ruled out the eunuch's interference with the imperial power.
Xuanye, the holy father of Qing Dynasty (1662- 1722 reigned)
(2) local system. Locally, it is divided into four levels: province, province, prefecture and county. The highest officials in the province are the governor and the governor, collectively known as the governor. Roughly two or three provinces have one governor and each province has one governor. In the provinces below the governor, there are political envoys for civil affairs and finance, and judges for sentencing are in charge of judicial prisons. The province is the Tao, the Tao is the mansion, and the mansion is the county.
(3) Frontier system. In the northeast, Shengjing is the capital, with five departments: household, ceremony, soldier, punishment and industry, and Fengtianfu, which is in charge of Shengjing. In Shengjing, Jilin and Heilongjiang, there is a general in charge of military and political affairs. In outer Mongolia, Zasa restraint is practiced, that is, the League flag system. In Qinghai, Xinjiang and Tibet, there are ministers in charge of affairs.
(4) Military system. The army of the Qing Dynasty mainly consisted of the Eight Banners and the Green Camp. The Eight Banners were the original troops before the Qing Dynasty entered Shanhaiguan, with Beijing as its capital. The Eight Banners were divided into Beijing camp and garrison, each with more than 100,000 people. Beijing camp protects the emperor and guards the capital, and garrisons the town. The Green Battalion is a Han Chinese army adapted and recruited after the Qing soldiers entered the customs. With the Eight Banners stationed in Beijing and other provinces, there are about 600,000 people. The cross distribution of the two forms a military control network throughout the country, which is not only convenient for defending and suppressing people's resistance, but also convenient for the Eight Banners to supervise and control the green campers.
(5) Ideological rule. The rulers of Qing Dynasty promoted literary inquisition, promoted cultural absolutism and strengthened ideological rule.
Short Answer Questions
1. The governor's organizational system originated from the military supervision system in the Ming Dynasty. Due to the separation of the three powers at the local level, when encountering special circumstances such as civil unrest and famine that require unified and coordinated actions, shirking each other means that no one is responsible. The inspector, the economic supervisor, the governor and the governor are the products of this background, which broke the local restrictions and realized the favorable situation of "a game of chess in the whole country". After the Qing soldiers entered the customs, they inherited the governor system of the Ming Dynasty. Generally, the governor was in charge of two or several provinces, while the governor was only in charge of a single province. They "mounted the army and dismounted the officials and people" and were known as "government officials". The generals are similar to the chiefs of the Ming Dynasty, and there are settings in both the frontier and the mainland, but the generals in the mainland lack real power and are irrelevant. However, the generals in the frontier are extremely powerful. They are not only responsible for defending the land, but also have the authority to govern the people.
3. Nine products are made in the middle.
An important official selection system in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. Also known as the nine-product officer method. On the eve of Wei Wendi's usurpation of the Han Dynasty, the first year of Yankang (220) was formulated by Chen Qun, the minister of Wei Official Department. This system was gradually perfected in the Western Jin Dynasty, and changed in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Taking the system of Wei and Jin Dynasties as an example, its main contents are as follows:
(1) set up Chiang Kai-shek in each county first, and then set up Dazhongzheng in each state later. States and counties can only be served by locals, and most of them are served by current central officials. Ren Zhongzheng is generally the second of the nine products, that is, the top grade. At the beginning of the county, Chiang Kai-shek was elected by the county chiefs, but it was recommended by Zhongzheng in Jin Dynasty, and the appointment right of Zhongzheng was in Situfu. There are subordinates in all counties, which are called "visits". Ordinary people can be appraised by subordinates, while important people can be personally appraised by Chiang Kai-shek.
(2) The authority of Chiang Kai-shek is mainly to comment on figures, with three criteria: family background, morality and talent. Family background, also known as "book valve" and "book world", refers to the family expectation and father's official rank of the appraised person. Zhongzheng only makes a general comment on the morality and talent of the characters, which is called "appearance" For example, in Cao Wei's time, Wang Jia was "like" Ji Mao as "virtuous and talented". In the Western Jin Dynasty, Wang Ji of Chiang Kai-shek "shaped" Sun Chu as "talented and talented, brilliant and outstanding". According to the comments of his family background and talents, Zhongzheng made a high-ranking judgment on the characters, which was called "quality". Products are divided into nine grades, namely, upper, upper, upper, upper, middle, lower, lower, upper, lower, lower and lower. But there are only two categories, namely, top grade and bottom grade. No one can get one product, so the second product is the highest product. At the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty, the three products were still considered high-quality (top grade), and later they were reduced to low-quality (inferior grade).
(3) the results of Chiang Kai-shek's appraisal are submitted to Situfu for review and approval, and then sent to the official department as the basis for selecting officials. The grade evaluated by Zhongzheng, also known as "local product", is closely related to the official career of the evaluated person. Those who serve as officials must adapt their official products to their local products. The starting point of being an official (also known as "starting an official") is often "honest official", and they are promoted quickly and respected; The starting point of being an official is often a "muddy official", and the promotion is slow, which is despised by people.
④ As usual, the figures reviewed by Chiang Kai-shek are adjusted once every three years, but Chiang Kai-shek can also upgrade or downgrade the figures reviewed at any time. After a person's local products rise and fall, the turbidity of official products and residence officials often changes. Because the original Chinese products are written in yellow paper and hidden in Situ House, it is called "yellow book", so the degraded or duplicated products must go to Situ House to correct the yellow paper. In order to improve the authority of Chiang Kai-shek, the government also prohibits the evaluated from suing for waste. However, just as ordering goods is illegal, the government should pursue its responsibility.
The system of Nine Grades of Zhengzhong is the result of inheriting and reforming the system of selecting officials in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The selection of officials in the Eastern Han Dynasty was mainly based on Confucian moral behavior standards, and the evaluation of clan and township party became the main or even the only basis for the government to select officials (the specific way is to inspect and levy). The chaos at the end of the Han Dynasty caused people to move, which brought difficulties to the evaluation of rural areas, and it was impossible for employers to focus on rural areas. During Cao Cao's more than 20 years in power, there were a lot of situations in which people were "determined by their own minds" and "each cited its own kind". However, the evaluation of the township has not been completely abandoned. It is said that when Cao Cao pacified Jingzhou, he asked Han Song, a local celebrity, "to use all the advantages and disadvantages of the people in Zhangzhou"; Also known as Cui Yan and Mao■, who presided over the election for Cao Cao, "always discussed things in unison for more than ten years". The so-called "always discussed things in unison" is to master and balance the discussions in various places. Cao Cao didn't generally deny the comments on the rural areas, but only opposed the shortcomings arising from the comments on the rural areas at the end of the Han Dynasty. One of his ways to correct it is to advocate "meritocracy" to oppose false morality and inconsistency between name and reality; The second is to suppress the glitz of cronies and private manipulation of elections, trying to control the right to vote in the hands of the government. For example, Han Song's masterpiece, Jingzhou people, is different from the private appraisal of rural areas manipulated by celebrities at the end of Han Dynasty, and is more similar to the situation in which the government was appointed and responsible to the government later. Many characteristics of the Nine Grades Zhengzhi system have sprouted during the reign of Cao Cao, and Cao Pi and Chen Qun further institutionalized it (see Cao Cao, Emperor Wu of Wei).
At the beginning of the establishment of Jiupin Zhengzhi system, the criteria for evaluating characters were family background, morality and talent. Shen Yue, a historian of the Liang Dynasty, even said that it was "to judge talents by their merits, not to say that the world is high and low". However, in the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the person who acted as the leader was generally the second product, and the second product had the right to participate in the recommendation of the leader, and almost all the people who got the second product were the aristocratic family, so the aristocratic family completely controlled the right to select officials. Therefore, in the process of producing genuine products in China, the standard of talent and virtue was gradually ignored, and family background became more and more important, even becoming the only standard. By the time of the Western Jin Dynasty, the situation of "no poverty in the top grade, no power in the bottom grade" was finally formed. The nine-product system has not only become an important tool to maintain and consolidate the rule of the gate valve, but also an important part of the gate valve system itself. In the Southern Dynasties, even the official titles of fathers and grandfathers were not important in the comments of Chiang Kai-shek, but only the names of distant ancestors in Wei and Jin Dynasties were valued, and only the genealogy was needed to distinguish the lineages and surnames, so the products of Chiang Kai-shek became an insignificant routine. During the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Northern Dynasties, due to the nature of minority rule, the role of Jiupin Zhengzhi system could not be compared with that of the Jin and Southern Dynasties. After Zhao's reign, Schleswig-Schleswig made a clear decision to do nine things, and Shi Hu also resumed the privilege of exemption from service for the noble families in the two states of Yong-Qin, but it seems that there was no post of Chiang Kai-shek. In the early and middle period of the Northern Wei Dynasty, there was no Nine-product Zhengzhi system. Ho Choi tried to resume the practice of dividing family names, so he was killed. Emperor Xiaowen changed his system, and the class decided on the family name, and only then did he establish the nine-product system. However, since the change of river yin, this system has also become a mere formality. In the Sui Dynasty, with the decline of the gate valve system, this system was finally abolished.