(1) The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement and foreign aggression shocked the rule of the Qing Dynasty.

(2) The Westernization School advocated "learning from foreigners to control foreigners" and maintained the rule of the Qing Dynasty.

(3) The die-hards stick to the rules and blindly reject all foreign things.

(4) After the establishment of the Prime Minister's yamen, the Manchu rulers headed by Cixi temporarily supported the powerful Westernization School, which was appreciated by foreign invaders.

(5) The expansion of the industrial revolution and the formation of "reconciliation between China and foreign countries" made it possible to carry out the Westernization Movement.

Second, the production process

1860 65438+February Zeng Guofan said that at present, foreign forces can help suppress grain transportation and reduce temporary worries; In the future, you can learn foreign skills, build processing ships, and receive permanent benefits. In the second year, he gave full play to the above viewpoints and advocated buying foreign naval guns, visiting skilled craftsmen, practicing first, and then trying to build them. But in another year or two, the fireboat will become a thing of the past for the people, and then it can be suppressed (referring to the Taiping Army) and stranded (stranded army), which is the first priority of rescue (the complete works of Zeng, draft, 65438+) 1862 After Li Hongzhang arrived in Shanghai, foreign invaders helped train the foreign artillery team and set up the foreign artillery bureau. In his view, the Qing army, The reason is that the weapons are not good and there are too many guns (yǔ). If we can use firearms to compete with the West, it will be more than enough to pacify China and there will be no shortage of foreign enemies. From now on, we can finally achieve autonomy (Draft of Friends of Li Wenzhong Public Rights Book, Volume 3). Hey? Seeing that Zeng and Li had learned to build foreign naval guns, they decided to send someone to learn. They said in the memorial that governing the country should be self-reliant, self-reliance should be based on practice, and practice should be based on making tools. "I can be self-reliant and live in peace." "Preparing for Foreign Affairs").

Hey? Some people think that as long as some advanced western technologies are added to the feudal system, people can be suppressed and feudal rule can last for a long time. They also believe that preparing for westernization will definitely get the support of the great powers.

The die-hards, led by the great scholar Woren, sang that "the way to build a country lies in respecting ceremony, not in tactics, and the fundamental purpose lies in people's hearts, not in skills", and advocated that "loyalty is the armor and ceremony is the god" to resist foreign aggression. They criticized the Westernization School for learning advanced production technology from the West, saying that it was "very advanced and correct", but "taking propriety and righteousness as the backbone and loyalty and righteousness as the armor" was not conducive to self-improvement. In the past twenty or thirty years, Chinese and foreign officials failed to control the enemy, and they just filled their responsibilities with empty words, which led to the changes in Geng Shen. "Westernization and die-hards attack each other, and the struggle is fierce. The Prime Minister's Office is the central organization to promote the Westernization Movement. However, the influence of the Westernization School is mainly not in the central government of the Qing Dynasty, but in the governors and governors who hold local real power. Cixi understood that in order to maintain the dominance of the Qing Dynasty, she had to rely on the powerful Westernization School which was appreciated by foreign invaders. So she temporarily adopted the strategy of supporting Westernization.

Third, the content

"Middle school as the body and western learning as the application" is the guiding ideology of the Westernization Movement.

In the early days of the Westernization Movement, the Westernization School established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" and adopted advanced western production technology.

186 1 year, the Anqing ordnance institute founded by Zeng Guofan hired China craftsmen to imitate western-style guns, which was the earliest modern military industry in China. From 1862, it took three years to successfully develop China's first ship "Huanggu".

In the later period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties of military industry in terms of capital, fuel and transportation, the Westernization School set up many civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".

The following timetable can help us understand some of the most important contents of the Westernization Movement:

186 1 year, the Qing government established the Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs, which was a newly established diplomatic institution of the Qing government.

1862 set up wentong library in Beijing to train translators, which was the earliest westernization school in Qing dynasty (1902 merged into Shi Jing university hall).

1863, "Guangdong Pavilion" was established in Shanghai; The following year, the "Guangdong Pavilion" was established in Guangzhou. The main purpose of Cantonese Pavilion is to cultivate talents who are proficient in foreign languages.

1865, Jiangnan manufacturing bureau was established in Shanghai with a translation hall; In the same year, Jinling Machinery Manufacturing Bureau was established in Nanjing.

1866, Mawei Shipping Bureau was established in Fuzhou.

1870, the General Bureau of Ordnance Machinery was established in Tianjin (later renamed Beiyang Machinery Manufacturing Bureau).

1872, China merchants ship was established in Shanghai; The first batch of overseas students sent by China officials went abroad, and they were selected under the guidance of Yung Wing. Establish a "declaration".

1875, suggesting that all provinces set up foreign schools; Set up the item "westernization and enterprising" in the imperial examination.

1878, Lanzhou Weaving Bureau was established in Lanzhou, which is the earliest machine woolen mill in China.

1880, the machine weaving layout was established in Shanghai, which was the earliest machine cotton textile factory in China. In the same year, Shi Jing School was established in Tianjin to buy warships; Set up a north-south telegraph office.

188 1 year, Kaiping Mining Bureau was established.

1882, Lushun military port was established.

1885, the Qing government established a new naval yamen; Established the Army Ordnance School in Tianjin.

1890, Hubei Gun Factory was established in Hanyang; In Hubei and Jiangxi, Hanyeping Coal and Iron Plant and Mining Company were established.

Of course, these are not all the contents of the Westernization Movement, but only some of the most important and representative contents. In fact, there were many smaller factories and mines at that time.

Anqing internal ordnance research institute

186 1 year, Zeng Guofan established a military industry in Anqing to manufacture modern weapons, which was also the first military industry founded by the Westernization School imitating western weapons. Mainly manufacturing bullets, gunpowder, blasting guns, etc. "Interior" refers to the setting of Anqing Army to which this ordnance belongs. 1864, after the Xiang army captured Nanjing, the factory was moved from Anqing to Nanjing and renamed Jinling Machinery Manufacturing Bureau.

Jiangnan manufacturing bureau

Also known as Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, it was founded by Li Hongzhang in Shanghai on 1865. /kloc-moved from Hongkou to Gaochang Temple in 0/867. After continuous expansion, it became the largest military industry of the Qing government. The technology and mechanical equipment of this factory mainly depend on foreign countries. Besides making guns and ammunition, it also makes machines and ships. /kloc-in 0/905, the shipbuilding part became independent and was called "Jiangnan Wharf", and the arsenal part was called Manufacturing Bureau. Later, it was renamed Jiangnan Shipyard and Shanghai Arsenal respectively.

Fuzhou navigational affairs management bureau

Fuzhou Shipping Bureau is the most well-equipped new shipyard operated by the Qing government. 1866 was founded by Zuo in Mawei, Fuzhou. Hire foreigners as technicians. Mainly composed of iron works, docks and schools, it was seriously damaged in the 1884 Mawei naval battle. Although it has recovered, it is not as good as before. After the Revolution of 1911, it was renamed the Naval Shipyard.

Hanyang iron works

1In the spring of 889, Zhang Zhidong, Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, planned to establish an ironmaking plant in Guangzhou. In the same year, he was transferred to the governor of Huguang, and the ironworks moved to Hanyang. 1890 Construction started under Dabie Mountain. 1893 Hanyang Iron Works was basically completed, with six large factories, four small factories and two ironmaking furnaces. 1894 was put into production, and it was all official at the beginning. From preparation to 1895, * * * spent more than 5.8 million. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1896, the Qing government was unable to raise funds, so it was changed to "official supervision and commercial office" in 1896. On the eve of the Revolution of 1911, Hanyang Iron Works had about 3,000 workers with an annual output of 70,000 tons. During the period of War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, some equipment of Hanyang Iron Works was moved to Chongqing by the Kuomintang government and Dadukou Iron and Steel Works was established. After liberation, it belongs to the people.

Ship investment promotion bureau

Referred to as "China Merchants". The earliest shipping enterprise established in China. 1872 (11th year of Tongzhi in Qing Dynasty) Li Hongzhang was invited to organize. 1873 1 holds. The General Administration is located in Shanghai, with branches in Yantai, Hankou, Tianjin, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Yokohama, Kobe, Luzon and Singapore. It once broke the western monopoly and made a profit of more than 6 million yuan, but it all fell into Li Hongzhang's pocket. Therefore, there is a saying that "Prime Minister Hefei is thinner than the world". 1885 (in the 11th year of Guangxu) was changed to official supervision and commercial office. 1909 (Xuantongyuannian) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. 19 12 was changed to commercial office, renamed as Commercial China Merchants Steamship Company, and later renamed as Commercial China Merchants Steamship Co., Ltd. 1932, the Kuomintang government was nationalized and renamed as State-owned China Merchants Bureau, which was under the Ministry of Communications. During the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression period, the General Administration moved to Hongkong first and then to Chongqing. Moved back to Shanghai after the war. 1947 * * has 460 ships, exceeding 330,000 tons. China merchants steamship co., ltd was established in 1948. 195 1 changed its name to China People's Steamship Corporation, and Hong Kong still retains its old name. China merchants group co., ltd was established in 1985.

Tianjin machine building bureau

1872, Li Hongzhang established China Merchants Shipping Company, which was the first modern shipping company in China and the first private enterprise founded by Westernization School. When it was founded, it bought three ships, arrived at 1877, and bought Meiqichang Shipping Company, with more than 30 ships, forming a powerful merchant fleet.

China Navy's new warship "Chen Nan"

Beiyang navy is the best. 1888, beiyang fleet was formally established, with 25 warships and more than 4,000 officers and men, with Ding, the general of Huai Army, as the prefect. At the same time, two naval bases, Lushunkou and Ahava, were completed, and the construction of the whole Beiyang coastal defense system was declared complete. Li Hongzhang proudly said: Beiyang Navy has a "strong momentum" ... it can be stationed in Liaoning and Bohai, and it can also be supported in other places, supplemented by the stationing of various artillery companies, which is enough to defend Gyeonggi. "

In order to meet the needs of the Westernization Movement, the Westernization School also held some new schools, such as Shi Jing Wentong Museum and Fuzhou Ship Administration School, to train translators, military personnel and scientific and technological personnel. First, several groups of international students were sent abroad for further study.

Establishment of Wentong Museum

People who have been engaged in translation for a long time in the history of our country, but the formal establishment of foreign language schools was not until the Qing government 1862 that the Wentong Museum was established in Beijing. When the Qing government signed the treaty of nanking, Tianjin Treaty and Beijing Treaty with foreign countries, even China people who knew foreign languages could not be found, and they were deceived by the invaders.

186 1 year? Please set up a foreign language school to train foreign language talents and diplomatic talents. 1862 August, Emperor Tongzhi officially approved the establishment of "Shi Jing Wentong Pavilion". Besides Chinese, students mainly study foreign languages. There are foreign teachers, such as Paul Teng in Britain, Smile and Billigan in France, Berlin in Russia, Ding Weiliang in the United States, John Flair and Harrington. Ding Weiliang served as head teacher from 1869, and was in charge of education affairs for 30 years. Hurd, the chief tax official, also serves as an inspector, actually controlling the power of funds and personnel.

Wentong Library is completely managed by regular schools, and English Library, Russian Library, German Library and Oriental (Japanese) Library are opened one after another. Only the children of the Eight Banners under the age of 13 and 14 will be recruited, and then Manchu students aged 15-25 and Manchu students of any age will be recruited. The study period is initially set at 3 years, which is divided into two types according to 1876: one is students of foreign languages, astronomy, chemistry, geodesy and other disciplines, with an academic system of 8 years; First, older students who study astronomy, chemistry, geodesy and other disciplines only by Chinese translation have a five-year academic system. 1867 added mathematics, chemistry, international law, medical physiology, astronomy, physics, foreign history and geography. The maximum number of students is 120. Most of the graduates are translators, diplomats and officials of other westernization agencies of the Qing government. There is a printing factory that translates and prints books on the public law of nations and mathematics, physics, literature and history. 1902 wentong museum merged into Shi Jing university hall.

Fourth, failure.

Logo of failure: 1895, beiyang fleet was completely annihilated and defeated in the Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

Reason for failure:

At that time, the failure of the Westernization Movement in China was inevitable. First, the Westernization School tried to use some advantages of western capitalism to maintain feudal autocracy without touching the decadent feudal system. The contradiction between this means and the foundation makes the Westernization Movement doomed to be impossible. At the same time, the Westernization Movement was obstructed and destroyed by die-hards all over the country, which increased the resistance to the development of the Westernization Movement. Second, the class limitations of the Westernization School itself determine that they are not only the founders and operators of modern industry, but also their destroyers and destroyers. Their feudal yamen and bureaucratic system will inevitably lead to the failure of westernization enterprises. Third, one of the purposes of the Westernization Movement is to resist foreign aggression. However, when conducting diplomatic activities, the Westernization School insisted on "harmony but difference" and surrendered to foreign countries. The modern enterprises they founded have the function of resisting foreign aggression and benefiting people, but they can't change the semi-colonial and semi-feudal social status of China. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the goals of "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" advertised by the Westernization School failed to be realized, and the Westernization Movement basically failed.

Westernization school advocates "middle school as the body, western learning for use", hoping to maintain feudal rule with advanced technology, and the reform will not touch the feudal system. Because the reform only absorbs advanced western technology and does not learn advanced western systems, it is bound to fail.

1) The leaders are not well informed-the advocates of the Westernization Movement only see the side of the West, focusing on military reform and ignoring the cooperation of political system reform; Moreover, there is a lack of overall planning and mutual cooperation.

2) Bureaucratic mismanagement-the enterprise construction adopts the system of "official supervision and commercial operation", and the mismanagement of officials and corruption and fraud have led to losses in enterprises for years, and many construction quality is not up to standard.

3) Obstruction by die-hards-In the Qing court, Empress Dowager Cixi intervened in the Westernization Movement, and die-hards tried their best to obstruct it, making the reform more difficult. For example, Cixi embezzled naval funds to build the Summer Palace, so that after the completion of beiyang fleet, there was no innovation or equipment.