These three countries encountered many difficulties in the process of reform, because the agricultural system in the past was too deep and political centralization involved too much, so it was not easy to be thoroughly remoulded. The new society should be based on business habits and its activities should be based on the functions of low-rise buildings. The old French regime, Russia under the czar and traditional China could not adapt to the environment immediately, and the existing system could not produce formulas and laws for the free exchange of various economic factors to meet this need.
What happened in these three countries cannot be entirely attributed to poor organization in the past. They all reflect on each other, showing the particularity of bureaucracy. Louis XIV of France (reigned at 1643- 17 15) called himself "I am the country", which showed that he enjoyed his country with all his might. Russia's Catherine II (reigning 1762- 1796) and Alexander I (reigning 180 1- 1825) were both enlightened masters in the period of "enlightened autocracy", and their literary and political talents were no less than those in the heyday of the Qing Dynasty. When it comes to capitalism and mercantilism, not only are the organizations and structures of these countries unable to compete with them, but even their own existence is problematic. Even the past actions and facilities have become obstacles and obstacles now.
All three movements mentioned above put forward class struggle. Lenin advocated that "all power should be transferred to the Soviet Union", which obviously imitated the strategy of "Monta Gnad" using "no culottes" during the French Revolution (see below). It is not unique that China organized the so-called "Rebel General Command" during the Cultural Revolution, because the "Rebel Committee" also appeared in Paris at the end of 18. However, are the difficulties encountered by French, Russian and China really due to social and economic inequality, and is class interest conflict the focus of all problems? On the other hand, is it because of the experience of French, Russian and China that the decision-making of the whole world will only take the capitalist road in the future, because it is "true gold is not afraid of fire"?
This is not the only problem. Capitalism, as an organization and a movement, occurred before the French Revolution, but the word capitalism came into being because of the French Revolution and its process (see Chapter 1 for details), so it has a history of nearly 200 years. In the future development, especially in Chinese mainland and the Soviet Union, it is doubtful whether this concept opposite to socialism can remain intact. This book mentions induction, arguing that France, the Soviet Union and China should first enter the process of numeral management, or put forward the experience of trying to enter this realm. From a technical point of view, if we can analyze the above three movements and refer to the data in the previous chapters, we should be able to give a more objective but specific answer to the above questions in the next chapter.
French Revolution
The French Revolution is a controversial topic. Historian georges lefebvre once wrote in "1932": "The old system made French agricultural history embark on the capitalist road, and the Great Revolution suddenly completed this work." This view cannot be recognized by other writers. Lefevere mentioned in another book: "In this decade, the progress of capitalism has not accelerated. On the contrary, the environment will only reduce it. " In fact, although there are contradictions between Le's two statements, they can still stand firm at the same time. Because the former refers to capitalism as a system and involves organizations; The latter is the actual amount of accumulated capital and the degree of mobilizing human and material resources. One is a long-term view, and the other is a short-term judgment. However, the differences between them are very misleading.
Writing history from personal experience is rather tangled. A well-known example is the debate between Ollard, the first French Revolution professor at the University of Paris, and his disciple Albert Matisse at the beginning of this century. In the late French Revolution, the radicals took Dandong, Mara and robespierre as * * * targets. After Mara was assassinated by a female assassin, only Dandong and robespierre were left. In Ollard's view, Dandong was a hero, while robespierre was vain and bookworm, so he decided the way of revolution according to his personal likes and dislikes. Martinez stressed that robespierre and his comrades are sincerely working for Wang's interests, while Dandong is corrupt and ready to betray the revolution. Not to mention the special books they wrote, they also taught and edited special issues for decades. In addition, there are nearly a thousand monographs about the Great Revolution, with more than ten volumes at every turn, and countless trivial periodical texts. The date of writing this book coincides with the two hundredth anniversary of Louis XVI's "Manor General" and the Bastille riots. The French people are preparing to provide new feelings in the commemorative activities. It is expected that writing about the Great Revolution will be dazzling at this time. We have spent one thousandth of our energy reading their works, so how can we extract their essence and make a brief comment?
However, history is a very broad field. When we involve pigs, we have different goals. In our view, the French Revolution is a common topic in human history, which influenced the development of other countries. If we give up this theme, the deeds of the first few chapters of this book will not be explained, and the future development will be inconvenient. Under this kind of international concern, the French Revolution, which we are familiar with, has its exemplary role. The last chapter said that the United States, Japan and Germany lacked a central system in the past, so the creation of a new system was less hindered, and a hypothetical reference was arranged for us in advance. Therefore, our observation focused on the technical difficulties encountered by France in its sudden reorganization at the end of 18, without paying attention to personal situation. Here's an example:
Louis XVI attempted to escape in June of 179 1, which was a legendary episode in the history of the great revolution. Originally planned carefully, the difficulties were initially broken. Just when I left Paris, this group of people let their guard down. The king was arrested twice, and the car dealership could not keep the predetermined speed, so that the people who were ready to meet on the road had to leave their posts and the horses were dismissed. When the king arrived in Valenes, it was already dark, and delay was one of the main reasons for being intercepted here. Warren is not far from the border, and the Austrian army is ready to meet him. It is true that those who sympathize with the king and queen will be heartbroken, that is to say, historians can't help wondering: what will happen in the future if the fate of heaven makes Louis reach the border safely? However, this fantasy is not only useless, but may produce hallucinations. Later facts proved that the problems in France at that time could not be solved by strengthening or even reforming the high-level state institutions. In this case, the king's power is minimal.
The French Revolution has its basic reasons behind the scenes, and its composition is both complex and magnificent. At that time, no one could grasp the situation. If this were not the case, so many revolutionaries and so-called counter-revolutionaries would not have been guillotined successively. Moreover, these brewing factors appear suddenly and stay in each stage for a short time, so we are not encouraged to take the initiative immediately. Lefevere recalled that in June of 1789+00, when a Parisian woman forced Louis to move to Paris from Versailles, she wrote: "No one can dream that the revolution has just begun." It can be seen that people always think that the rain and breeze in Mao Mao that day are like the huge waves and hurricanes in the future.
Louis XVI was accused by historians of freedom of will. At first, he had a chance to escape, but he didn't want to escape, because evading responsibility was not a noble spirit. When Paris was unstable, he mobilized troops to enter the defense, and sometimes he suppressed members of parliament, but when he was threatened by thugs, he refused to use force. He planned for the queen many times, and then changed his mind temporarily. Only when he finally dies on the guillotine can he die fair and square. After careful analysis, we believe that the main reason for its lack of decision is that the situation cannot be clarified. And it is not untrue that his concept of being responsible to all parties conflicts with each other. When the revolution began, everyone could not predict their participation, that is, a few people put forward bold views, which later proved that their vision was still too narrow. The Great Revolution changed from policy improvement to constitutional monarchy, and further established the Republic of China. It further revised the whole human culture, from ethics and religion to calendars and weights and measures, and finally changed to military dictatorship and international intervention. The rest of the waves have oscillated for decades. In this case, we can only understand what Clemenceau, nicknamed "Prime Minister Tiger" in World War I, said: "The revolution is a whole and a big square". Because impersonal factors are more important than personal factors, it also means that collective responsibility is more important than personal responsibility. It is also because of impersonal factors that the Great Revolution can be linked with the history of countries that are not directly related to France, such as China.
Accusing King Louis of his stupidity and bravery is tantamount to accusing robespierre of disloyalty and unbelief. Robespierre was wearing a light blue coat, aristocratic breeches, and her hair was powdered. His cronies wear Saint-juster earrings, and Dandong lacks sincerity when dealing with foreign countries. But Napoleon was also accused of marrying a notorious woman and getting promoted through nepotism. As for getting rich through revolution, all Bonaparte's brothers and sisters claim to be kings or nobles. And Napoleon's plunder abroad has never been publicly explained. In a word, morality is the last link of truth and the highest quality in the world. Once it is put forward, there is no room for turning back, so the story has to end. The above comments and accusations are not close to the topic we are trying to explore. The Great Revolution tried to redefine the standards of human morality, and its records should not be divided by moral issues first. Let's quote Lefevere again: He said, "A moralist will praise courage and condemn cruelty, but he can't explain the accident."
The following are our views on the Great Revolution, focusing on technology and tracing back to the most basic facts in the revolutionary process: The occurrence of the Great Revolution is generally believed to have started at 1789. In fact, the previous year, the Paris Parliament rejected the king's general order on taxation and revision of judicial procedures, forcing the king to hold a three-level meeting, which has already begun the prelude to the unrestrained nobility and privileged class. This relationship is very important, because the Great Revolution happened not because of the deadly conflict between one class and another, but because of the complicated interest duplication between different classes, regions and regions. In the future, revolutionaries can see that class struggle is actually a tool to solve problems. In the future, this practice can also be found in Russian and China.
The French Parliament is different from the British Parliament. It is not a legislature, but a high court, which maintains a style similar to that of the Tang Dynasty in China. All laws and regulations must be "registered" by the parliament before they can take effect, so the administrative organs cannot ignore them. In addition, inheriting the legacy of the feudal system, the judiciary is independent and cannot be controlled by a particularly powerful monarch. 1788, the Paris parliament opposed Louis XVI's administrative organization, leading to a political deadlock.
At this time, the national finance also fell into a low tide. Facts have proved that the military and political power of France in the18th century was superficial, the country lived by borrowing money, and the army also enriched its ranks through mercenaries from Germany and Switzerland. Previous international wars were either disastrous or the outcome was neck and neck; Participating in the American War of Independence is a victorious country, but it is also a loss-making business. At the same time, the financial difficulties cannot be solved internally, because the court's expenditure is less than 6% of the budget, while the interest paid by public debt exceeds half of the budget.
On that day, the population of France was estimated to be between 23 million and 25 million, and the population of Paris exceeded 600,000. With its rich resources, if its economy is well organized, its national economy and people's life should not be dwarfed by its neighbors (such as Britain and the Netherlands). In addition, France's national economy has started. Since17th century, the mercantilist policy has been strongly advocated by famous ministers Li Sailiu and colbert. France has made great progress in shipbuilding, overseas trade, textile, glass and luxury goods manufacturing. The organizational form of joint-stock companies is also roughly the same as that of other advanced countries. The stock exchange in Paris deals with speculative business, and it always reaches the climax of the Great Revolution, 65438+. However, in the legal system, these new economic factors are not combined into a self-regulating structure (in our eyes, that is, capitalism is not yet mature), but can only be touted by the atmosphere of bureaucratic organizations. The latter can openly sell various business privileges. Now it seems that the word "corruption" can no longer describe this situation. The main reason is that industry and commerce cannot be integrated with agriculture, and their wealth is fragile at the grassroots level, and their interests only benefit a part of the population. Compared with the backward situation in Germany (see Chapter 6 for details), it is too late.
The three-level meeting held in 1789 showed that France actually has three systems. Its principles are similar to the feudal system and county system in China before Wu Chu Rebellion in the early Han Dynasty, but its complexity is far more than that. The first rank consists of monks, Catholic abbots and ordinary monks and nuns, with a population of no more than 65,438+10,000. They have their own administrative system and religious courts, and usually levy tithes on believers and all the real estate of temples. Many bishops and abbots are actually village lords. Monks not only check the health and death of all believers, but also manage their marriage and inheritance, education and charity. The first level does not pay taxes to the king, but traditionally it voluntarily contributes to the national treasury through negotiation, and sometimes it pays part of the debt interest, but there are no cases.
The second level is nobility. The total number is only 400,000. There are mainly two kinds, one is the primitive samurai class, some are traced back to German descent before the Middle Ages, and some are later blocked. The other is the judges of the courts at all levels and the heads of local administrative agencies, who generally pay for the purchase of officials. /kloc-at the end of 0/8, French aristocrats were extremely chaotic, some were extremely rich and some were extremely poor. Generally, the title is inherited by the eldest son, but there is also the title of new noble, which is only related to the sealed person himself. Navy and army officers are led by nobles, and sometimes their status includes privileges. In the past, the concept that all nobles were manor owners no longer existed. Because French land can be bought and sold freely, sometimes the whole manor falls into the hands of civilian buyers. However, the feudal system has not been completely abolished, and some nobles are still lords and still open manor courts. It is estimated that on the eve of the Great Revolution, about 65,438+0/5 taxis in France were still in the hands of nobles. In addition to imposing feudal customs on farmers, they also insisted on their own water conservancy rights, mineral property rights, tree planting rights and hunting rights.
If there is no collective organization, it is difficult for nobles to collect taxes directly from them. On the one hand, this is also attributed to the organization of local governments in France. With the development of history, the central area of early French territory belonged to the king, and the administrative personnel stationed by the central government were generally unrestricted. However, all units in the border areas signed contracts with the king when they returned to China, and each unit had a hereditary local head and a representative local institution to preside over the work. This tax has yet to be negotiated. In addition, the continued existence of the manor system is the reason why the investigation and statistics are difficult to be accurate. The feudal rules in Europe never stated what kind of industries were owned by people, but only most people enjoyed privileges on the same land and had to farm according to the rules, which further hindered the promotion of agriculture. In addition, the whole city and town enjoy different privileges.
The third level is civilians, who are said to account for 94% of the national population, most of whom are farmers. The husband system in France has long been abolished, and it no longer exists except in a few areas in the northeast corner. Ordinary farmers are free to buy industries. The ratio of owner farmers to tenant farmers varies from place to place. The general difficulty is that the division of cultivated land is too small to improve agricultural technology. In the past few decades, the population has increased greatly, and most farmers feel oppressed. The frequent occurrence of natural disasters not only threatens food shortage, but also affects people's lives. According to research, on the eve of the Great Revolution, compared with the beginning of18th century, land rent increased by 98%, prices rose by 65%, and wages only increased by 22%. Therefore, the life of the ordinary king went from bad to worse. 1788 The harvest was poor, the winter was cold, the river was frozen, and food was in short supply, making it impossible to transport. In the following year, as many as half of the city's citizens lost their jobs, which was the main reason for the revolutionary momentum. In summer, the unrest in Paris caused all kinds of rumors, which disturbed the country and spread all over the country.
The bourgeoisie in the city is a revolutionary. They fought for their rights, and indeed they hated the privileges of the nobility. However, the simple conflict of class interests is not the main motivation for them to forget their own lives and launch a political wave. Because of their success in their careers, they can also marry nobles or buy knighthood titles to donate officials. Only under the old system, they felt depressed. Since the Enlightenment, various concepts of natural human rights and national customs have been deeply rooted in people's hearts. The distance between thought and knowledge and social environment and living habits is the most powerful condition to drive the middle class to participate in the revolution in modern society, and France has this background at this time. Later, bankers and wealthy businessmen donated money for the riots, lawyers joined the organization with eloquence, Sies took part in the revolution as a member of a cult, Mirabo became a civilian representative with aristocratic status, and Dandong was a lawyer like robespierre and most revolutionaries. Mara changed from a doctor to a reporter. None of the above can easily explain their emotions and actions with their own class interests. At the same time, bourgeois (bollfg60isi) is an extremely broad and irrelevant term. Tycoons from the upper class to the rich, almost privileged classes, and small-scale craftsmen can all be called bourgeoisie or citizen class. Although the Great Revolution made the bourgeoisie rise, many members of the bourgeoisie were liquidated.
Now let's trace back to the situation when Louis XVI held the third-level meeting: this kind of meeting has not been held since 16 14. Because his ancestors Louis XIV and Louis XV were in power 13 1 year, they paid attention to personal politics and lacked a sound organizational system. At this time, the purpose of the king's convening the three-tier parliament is nothing more than planning tax plans and solving financial problems. However, the lower classes are severely exploited, acting as feudal practices, paying all direct taxes (taille), providing labor (corvee) and paying most salt taxes (gabelle). They have been out of breath for a long time and cannot raise taxes on them. And the new burden is not convenient to be directly allocated to other secondary levels. In the past, the overlapping bedstead of public and private finance has not been reorganized for a long time, and there is no way to know where taxes can be increased and where rents should be increased. Therefore, the collection of taxes and rents is mostly contracted. Only when professional collectors are familiar with local and personal situations can they perform their tasks and profit from them. If the situation can still be managed by numbers, there is no need to disturb them. At the same time, there are still many problems that affect the whole body, such as the intensification of the future trend, the nobles going abroad, and many people in the lower class are unemployed. Raising food prices should be beneficial to farmers, but farmers who grow grapes and make wine in the central and western regions are complaining. Only by improving agricultural production and concentrating on enclosure can cultivated land be put into cultivation together, but farmers are the first to be opposed; They lost the right to collect firewood and graze in the commons, and immediately lost their livelihood. There is no way to plan and find out the countermeasures for such problems.
Therefore, judging from various impersonal factors, France has been unable to negotiate peacefully and reorganize fairly. Only put everything into a melting pot and wait for the arrangement of history, but no one saw through this situation at that time.
1789 when the third-level meeting was held, local units at all levels listed the requirements for claiming the title of king by writing according to the last article, which was called. Ahi6y, we might as well call it "Chen Qingbiao". Among the second requirements, there is a paragraph that requires the king to fix his aristocratic status. Everyone's honor level should be carefully determined so that they can form their own consortium and system like monks. In the future, the court should not confuse reputation and status by selling officials and titles. The king's closest ministers must be selected from the nobility, and their children should be educated by the royal family. Today, we seem surprised that such a request can be described as ignorance of the times. The Great Revolution was aimed at liquidating nobles. Once the rhythm started, many nobles were guillotined without trial. Then why are they so arrogant from the beginning, not asking for forgiveness, but boasting that their privileges have been strengthened?
This move can also be explained by impersonal relationships:
Chen Qingbiao is also a legal procedure. The third-level meeting became a dialogue between the king and his subjects. Of course, the king asked representatives at all levels to make a coordinated decision to collect taxes, and the latter took this opportunity to make the situation by going up one flight of stairs. Both power and obligation, both obligation and power, are in line with the feudal system. Only the meeting was divided into three levels, and the convening of the meeting had the shadow of class struggle.
Representatives at all levels are elected by local units with different procedures. It usually takes three or four primary elections and re-election. Therefore, representatives can only be regarded as authorized by local units to participate, rather than participating in state affairs consultations in their personal opinions. After this arrangement, voters in local units also feel that they have become a public opinion organization, and unless their class and local Chen Qingbiao are answered, they are duty-bound. So headed by Paris, this place is not only the capital, but also a salon for fashionistas to discuss politics, which has produced many periodicals and pamphlets to incite revolutionary sentiment. Since then, 407 "electors" in Paris have often held meetings after selecting the representatives of the three-level congresses, and the Paris Commune and the National Guard have emerged from this electoral meeting. These institutions and organizations, as well as clubs where Paris politicians often meet, have become the basic forces behind the revolution. Later, they not only kept order, but also incited the mob. The situation in other regions is similar. 1789 At the beginning of the riots in Paris, the governors sent by the old system left one after another, and the government organization had collapsed. Towns generally follow the method of Paris, and they no longer accept orders from the administrative system under the jurisdiction of the king except the bills of the National Assembly.
Therefore, the weakness of the old system is one of the main reasons why the situation is out of control. This situation also brought the French Revolution and the Russian October Revolution close to each other, but it could not be compared with the reunification movement in Germany. 1789, 14 On July 4th, the people of Paris rushed into the disabled building for the first time and obtained 32,000 muskets. Then they attacked the Bastille in order to get weapons and gunpowder, so as to remove the threat of this fortress to the citizens of Paris, rather than the so-called liberation of prisoners. The news spread everywhere, many towns and villages responded, and farmers attacked the aristocratic fortress.
For the sake of simplicity, the Great Revolution can be divided into two stages: the first stage lasted more than three years from the opening of the third-level meeting in May 1789 to August 1792, with the aim of establishing a constitutional monarchy. 1792 In August, Louis lost all his functions and powers, and the revolution went from moderate to extreme, and finally ended in the reign of terror (abbreviated as terror). Later, because the "tropical reaction" ended, it lasted for July, 1794, and it lasted for nearly two years in the later period. Since then, Napoleon seized power through the mutiny in June 1799 1 1. During this period, more than five years can only be regarded as a consolidation period.
When the third-level meeting was held, there were about 600 third-level delegates and about 300 first-and second-level delegates. At first, the king and parliament insisted on discussing and voting at three levels according to the precedent of 16 14. If a bill is approved at two levels, it will be passed. Obviously, it is impossible to change the state system, that is, it is difficult to change the principles and policies. Therefore, the third-level representatives advocate that all representatives should consult together and vote collectively. Under this proposition, the third-level meeting became the "National Assembly", which was later called the "Constituent Assembly", and the representative political institution formed by the Constituent Assembly was called the "Legislative Assembly", with the number 17965438+. All of the above are different from the "National Assembly" in the later period of the revolution). Because the king blocked the premises of parliament, these representatives gathered in the indoor tennis court of Versailles Palace, and encouraged some nobles representing lower-class monks and progressives to participate. For fear that the king would suppress them by force, the participants signed an oath, saying that they would never disperse unless their goals were achieved. It is mentioned that the purpose of convening the National Assembly is to "draft the constitution, give the country a new life and determine the correct principles of the monarchy".
Start the revolutionary process in this way. Seeing that the situation was out of control, Louis XVI ordered the first-class and second-class representatives to participate as one person. His concession was not based on enlightened opinions, but on internal and external threats. Paris felt food panic and didn't know the king's intentions. He concentrated his troops inside and outside Paris to prevent the foolishness of mobs and protect the security of the National Assembly. However, once organized, the so-called mob has actually become a revolutionary mass force and an amulet for some representatives in the National Assembly.
A three-level meeting was held on May 5th, a tennis court oath was held on June 20th, the Paris Commune was organized on June 25th, and the Bastille was captured on July 14. On July 17, Louis XVI visited Paris, hoping to appease the people. 10 On June 5th, there were still more than 6,000 street women in Paris carrying javelins and double guns in the rain. With the support of 20,000 members of the National Army behind them, the king and queen were forced to move from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace in Paris. Two weeks later, the National Assembly met in Paris. Since then, each other has been in the shadow of the Paris masses. The masses or mobs under the command of the Paris Commune have the power to influence the overall progress of state affairs in the future.
So far, there is no exact explanation for these deeds. In other words, the riots and women's demonstrations in Paris were obviously planned and presided over. Who are they? What was the original purpose? Although historians have their own guesses, Duke Orleans, the distant uncle of the king, wants to be a constitutional monarch himself today, or this may be the prophecy of Isaiah and Mikhail. Some people even suspect that Lafayette, who became famous in the American Revolutionary War and is now elected as the commander of the National Army, is the most likely beneficiary. Several newspaper writers were also accused of inciting this initiative, but no one produced reliable evidence. In short, from personal observation, it is difficult to write history here with certainty.
Moreover, the harvest in 1789 was good, the food problem was once solved, and the tense air was relieved. Then, why the earth-shaking events have not yet started, and the civil war and the constant bloodshed on the guillotine still happen three years later?
The National Assembly decided to take over the property of the temple, abolish tithes, lift various feudal obligations, unconditionally abolish personal obligations, and redeem land obligations at the cost. It also adopted the Declaration on Human and Civil Rights, the first paragraph of which declares that "human beings have always enjoyed freedom and equal rights since birth, and social differences will only occur under the condition of common utility". In addition, these rights are listed as "freedom, property rights and the right to resist oppression". Everyone is equal before the law. The new law has not yet been promulgated, and the new constitution divides citizens into "active citizens" and "inactive citizens". The former pays the lowest tax and enjoys the right to vote. The legislative meeting held in 179 1 was produced according to this procedure, and its organizational form was unicameral, so there was no difference between nobles and civilians, let alone monks. The king has limited veto power over bills passed by the Legislative Assembly (the Legislative Assembly is held every two years, and the king can veto the same bill twice, so the veto power is valid for four years). In order to solve the current financial problems, it is decided to issue a kind of paper money called "assignats" to confiscate the property of the temple as a guarantee.
The reforms contained in these clauses seem to be extremely extensive, and the steps are moderate and compromise. Why can't such a plan turn enemies into friends? There must be something wrong with it.
The abolition of feudal privileges was not passed by the National Assembly after detailed examination and deliberation, but a few premeditated people decided to hold a meeting at 5 pm (1August 4, 789), and the meeting was postponed to 2 am for voting, and the debate procedure was arranged in advance. An important reform like this must be recognized by most people concerned and actively implemented to overcome technical difficulties. However, in fact, when legislating, it is hoped that its actions will be like "magic", so there are many propaganda elements and less actual effects. At this time, the remaining feudal factors in France did not appear as a whole, but penetrated into various economic life in the countryside, such as privileged "prestige"; In many cases, personal obligations and land obligations are inseparable; Many feudal privileges came from occupation, while others came from contracts. In other words, it is technically difficult for farmers to pay the price of 20 and 25 years for redemption. Moreover, some land has been leased to others, and I don't know who can take advantage. The excuse used by lords is that unless there is a ransom, the privilege will remain unchanged, and the situation varies from place to place. As a result, only a few thousand disputes have arisen from a bill of the National Assembly. Some farmers fought for the benefits given by the bill until 1793, and the plot was a "real civil war".
Confiscating temple property and abolishing tithe seemed easy, but later it involved more. As bishops and abbots lost their income, Congress decided to pay them, so all religious personnel became government employees. At this time, because the administrative areas of the whole country have been sorted out (refer to the difference between the central governments of French provinces and the border areas in the previous section), the national territory has been divided into areas with roughly equal areas according to the domestic mountains and rivers, so the old diocese was abolished and the new diocese overlapped with the administrative areas. Under the policy of integrating politics with religion, the National Assembly adopted the Civil Constitution for Clerics in 179 1, which stipulated that bishops should be elected by voters, not recognized by the Pope, and all monks should swear allegiance to the country. A modern writer thinks that this action "interrupted the unity of the whole country and the civil war began".
It is difficult for non-believers to master the mystery. The Roman church was born according to the authorization given by Christ to Paul. For thousands of years, bishops have been told that the gods have given orders to people. Many religious people consider it inappropriate to reduce the number of bishops and change their jurisdiction. Because from a theological point of view, these measures have defiled the root of their sacred mission. As for taking an oath to the human government, it is equivalent to turning all bishops and abbots into political instructors. Some monks are more philosophical and think that serving the victim and civil affairs can be regarded as two ways, but few people are in favor of taking the oath. Of the 160 bishops, only 7 took the oath. Later, the Pope condemned the Organic Law, which deepened the division within France. patriot
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