From the perspective of national law and international law, the modern Russian state appeared in19171.7. 199 1 12.25 changed its name to "Russian Federation", commonly known as "Russia" or "Russia", and it is the successor of the international obligations of the Russian tsar country, the Russian Empire, the Russian * * * Republic and the Russian Soviet Federalist Republic and the Soviet Socialist Republic.
Russia has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic Age.
The earliest regime in Russia was the Principality of Kiev, which was founded by vikings in the 9th century. From 862 to the middle of Kloc-0/2 century, it was an early country with Kiev as its capital and East Slavs as its main body.
According to the historical point of view, Kiev Ross is considered as the predecessor of three modern Eastern Slavic countries (Belarus, Russia and Ukraine). The rule of vladimir Svyatoslavich and his son yaroslav is regarded as the golden age of Kiev. At that time, they accepted the Orthodox Church and created the Russian Code (рускаяправда).
Russia in Kiev was occupied by the Golden Horde in the13rd century.
Extended history [edit]
Main projects: Russian Empire
In the late Middle Ages, Russia established the Grand Duchy of Moscow, gradually developed into an empire, and began to expand to Asia from the15th century. Under the leadership of the czars of past dynasties, the Russian Empire began to modernize and expand everywhere in the18th century, becoming one of the European powers. However, since the beginning of the 20th century, Russia's strength began to decline, and people became increasingly dissatisfied with the status quo. With the military fiasco of Russia in World War I and the subsequent civil war, the October Revolution finally broke out in 19 17.
Soviet Union [editor]
Major projects: Soviet Union
Soon, the * * * Production Party seized power under the leadership of Lenin, and the International Union of Soviet Socialism was established. Under the leadership of Lenin and his successor Stalin, the Soviet Union rapidly industrialized from an agricultural country and implemented agricultural collectivization. After defeating Nazi Germany in World War II, it developed into a red superpower during the Cold War. By the late 1980s, the Soviet Union had carried out many radical reforms. The Soviet Union finally disintegrated at 199 1.
Russian Federation [editor]
1991On August 24th, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federation and People's Republic of China (PRC) declared Russia's independence from the Soviet Union. Russia and the Soviet Union were renamed the Russian Federation and became sovereign countries. Since then, although the Russian Federation has failed to become a superpower like the former Soviet Union and the United States, it is still internationally recognized as a world power with great influence and the second military power in the world. At one time, the economy was in trouble and there was a constitutional crisis of 1993 in politics, but the current economic situation has been decisively improved.
Politics [editor]
Main projects: Russian politics
Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev (left) and Russian President Vladimir Putin (right)
The Russian Federation is a federal democracy. According to the Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation, it exercises its functions in accordance with the principle of separation, mutual restraint and balance of legislative, judicial and administrative powers.
The president is the head of state for a term of six years, compared with four years before the constitutional amendment in 2008, and is directly elected by the people. The president has considerable executive power and has the right to appoint senior officials, including the prime minister, but it must be approved by the parliament. The president is also the head of the armed forces and the chairman of the national security conference. And can directly issue decrees without the approval of parliament. The president shall not be re-elected for more than two terms.
According to the Constitution, the Parliament of the Russian Federation is the representative and legislative body of the Russian Federation. The federal parliament adopts a bicameral system. The lower house is called the State Duma (representing the main body of the Federation) and the upper house is called the Federal Council (representing the Federation).
The Federal Council (the House of Lords) is composed of two representatives of the federal entities of the Russian Federation: one from the state representative organs and the other from the state executive organs. Its main functions are to approve federal laws, change the boundaries of federal subjects, presidential orders on wars and emergencies, decide on overseas garrison, presidential election and impeachment, and relations between the central and local governments.
The functions and powers of the State Duma (lower house) are to agree to the appointment of the Prime Minister by the President; Decide on the issue of trust in the president; To appoint and remove the president of the audit institute and half of the auditors; Implement Amnesty; To file charges of dismissing the President of the Russian Federation; Pass federal laws.
Federal administrative department [editor]
Russia has 15 ministries and other administrative agencies at the same level, five of which are special, and the departments with important powers are directly controlled by the president, which are called powerful departments, namely:
Federal Ministry of the Interior
Federal foreign office
Federal Ministry of Defence
Federal Ministry of Justice
Federal Ministry of Civil Defence, Emergency Situations and Elimination of Consequences of Natural Disasters (hereinafter referred to as the Ministry of Emergency Situations)
The remaining 65,438+00 ministries are directly under the Prime Minister, namely:
Federal public library
Federal Ministry of Health and Social Development
Federal Ministry of Economic Development and Trade
Federal Ministry of Education and Science
Federal Ministry of Industry and Energy
Federal Department of Agriculture
Federal Ministry of Information Technology and Communications
Federal Ministry of Natural Resources
Federal Ministry of Culture and Media
Federal Department of Transportation
Administrative division [edit]
Main entrance: Russian administrative region
A first-class administrative region of the Russian Federation
The Russian Federation consists of 85 different administrative divisions:
22 * * Republics (республики/republics) enjoy greater freedom, and these * * * Republics are often inhabited by ethnic minorities.
48 states (states, provinces)
8 border areas (края/krais,"territories ")
Four autonomous regions (автономныеокругаа/autonomous municipality).
1 autonomous prefecture (автономнаяобаст1/
Three municipalities directly under the central government (городаеральногознн)
On May 13, 2000, Putin issued an order to establish seven federal districts in Russia (Central Federal District, Northwest Federal District, Southern Federal District, Federal District along the Volga River, Ural Federal District, Siberian Federal District and Far East Federal District).
20 10 65438+ 10/0/9 Medvedev issued an order to separate a new federal district from the southern federal district-the North Caucasus federal district.
2014,21In March, Putin issued an order to establish a new federal district in Crimea-the Crimean Federal District. So far, there are nine federal districts in Russia, namely, the Central Federal District, the Northwest Federal District, the Southern Federal District, the North Caucasus Federal District, the Federal District along the Volga River, the Ural Federal District, the Siberian Federal District, the Far East Federal District and the Crimean Federal District.
Major cities [edit]
Main Item: List of Russian Cities
The capital Moscow
Moscow, the capital of the Russian Federation, is the national political, economic, scientific, cultural and transportation center, and also the capital of Moscow State, the main body of the Russian Federation. Moscow has a population of 146 12602 (urban population: 10472629), which is the most populous city in Europe, accounting for110 of the whole Russian population. Moscow covers an area of 1, 08 1 square kilometer, and the urban area is 30 kilometers long from east to west and 40 kilometers long from north to south. Moscow was founded in 1 147 with a history of more than 800 years. In addition, during the Soviet Union, Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Olympic Games.
St. Petersburg, located in the northwest of Russia, along the Gulf of Finland, was founded in 1703. St Petersburg and Moscow are both municipalities directly under the central government of the Russian Federation, the capital of Leningrad, the largest port city in Russia and the second largest city after Moscow.
Volgograd, located along the Volga River, was founded in 1589 and later renamed Stalingrad or Stalingrad (сталина? д/Stalingrad), 196 1 was renamed Volgograd, which is the capital of Volgograd in southern Russia.
Yekaterinburg, located at the eastern foot of the Urals Mountains, was built in 1723. Now it is the central city of Ural Federal District and the capital of Sverdlovsk region. The city has always been an important industrial center in Russia and the largest city in the Urals.
Novosibirsk, located on the bank of ob river, was founded in 1893. It is the capital of Novosibirsk and the third most populous city in Russia. It is also a famous science city in Russia.
Territorial dispute [edit]
At present, the main territorial dispute in Russia is the South Kuril Islands (called the four northern islands in Japan). After World War II, Japan surrendered unconditionally. After World War II, the Soviet Union occupied the South Kuril Islands (Japan called the four northern islands). In recent years, Japan has frequently made representations to Russia, demanding the return of the four northern islands, but in vain.
Geography [edit]
Main project: Russian geography
The Russian Federation spans most of the northern part of Eurasia, with different topography and climate. Most of the whole territory belongs to the plains, especially in Siberia in Europe and Asia. Most of the southern plains are vast grasslands, while most of the northern plains are forest areas. Most of the mountains are concentrated in the eastern Pacific coast and the southern border, such as the Great Caucasus and Sayan-Baikal Mountains. Although the Ural Mountains in the center are the main dividing line between Europe and Asia, they belong to ancient folded mountains with low mountains and little topographic relief.
The coastline of the Russian Federation is 37,653 kilometers long, surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean or their marginal seas and bays in the west, north and east respectively:
The continental seas and bays to which the Atlantic Ocean belongs (from north to south): the Gulf of Finland, the Baltic Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea.
The marginal seas to which the Arctic Ocean belongs (from west to east): Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea and Chukchi Sea.
Pacific marginal seas (from north to south): Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan.
Many big rivers flow across the plain to the sea. The main rivers are Volga River, Jabi River, Yenisei River, Lena River and amur river (i.e. Heilongjiang). The main lakes are Lake Baikal, Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega.
Climate [edit]
Russia is located in eastern Europe and northern Asia, most of which are located in the north temperate zone and the north cold zone, with diverse climate, mainly continental climate. The temperature difference is generally large, with the average temperature in June of 5438+ 10 ranging from 5 degrees Celsius to minus 50 degrees Celsius (one of the lowest recorded temperatures in the world), and the average temperature in July ranging from 0 degrees Celsius to 27 degrees Celsius. The annual average precipitation is 150 ~ 1000 mm. From west to east, the continental climate is gradually strengthened and the winter is cold and long; There are obvious differences in climate between different places: the climate in the western part of the Eastern European plain is mild, and Siberia is very cold in winter. The arctic ocean coast has a polar tundra climate, and the Pacific coast has a monsoon climate. From north to south, it is polar desert, tundra, forest tundra, forest, forest grassland, grassland belt and semi-desert belt.
Russia inherited most of the Soviet socialist federal economic system, but it declined sharply after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The main reason lies not in the inefficiency of the state command economy left by the Soviet Union, but in the social unrest, political instability and unfair distribution brought about by the drastic liberalization reform:
In addition, the decline in oil prices after the second oil crisis led to the deterioration of the trade current account, which prompted many economic reforms after 1980 and stopped providing economic assistance to other producers including Cuba, East Germany and Eastern Europe. In addition, because the economic reform measures can't touch the idea of the * * * production party to run enterprises, all measures except layoffs are abandoned halfway. As a result, the number of unemployed people has greatly increased from 1980 to 1990, and the high unemployment rate has worsened social welfare expenditure, and the overall economy has fallen into a vicious circle. (For the above, please refer to Russian middle school history textbooks. )
More than ten years after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation is still striving to establish a modern market economy and achieve strong economic growth. [Source Request] The administrative and legislative bodies of the Russian Federation are also aware that the country's industrial base and further reforms are facing serious problems. During Yeltsin's administration, the Russian Federation's economy declined for five consecutive years after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Despite this, the Russian economy has relatively quickly transformed from the world's largest centrally planned economy to a market economy. At the end of 2006, Russia completed eight years of growth, with an average annual growth rate of 6.7% since the 1998 financial crisis, although there was a high negative population growth during this period.
From 65438 to 0997, the economy of the Russian Federation recovered. 1998 the financial crisis led to the devaluation of the ruble in August of that year, the debt intensified and the people's living standards seriously declined. However, during the period from 1999 to 200 1, with the help of high oil prices and the weak ruble, the economy of the Russian Federation recovered again, with an average annual growth rate of 6%.
This recovery, coupled with the basic economic reforms carried out by the new government, has enhanced investors' confidence in the Russian Federation. On the other hand, the Russian Federation still relies heavily on the export of natural resources, especially oil, natural gas, metals and timber, accounting for 80% of total exports. At present, Russia has become the world's largest exporter of natural gas and the largest exporter of crude oil outside the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
At the end of 2005, the Russian gross national product recovered from157 billion dollars in 1999 to about 750 billion dollars, and reached 2 1 trillion dollars in 20 12 years. Gold foreign exchange reserves increased from less than 1000 billion dollars at the end of 1998 to 65438+ dollars. By the end of 2006, it had exceeded the savings threshold of $280 billion, making it one of the countries with the largest foreign exchange savings in the world.
Transportation [edit]
Main projects: Russian transportation
Summarize [edit]
Russia's traffic is mainly railway and aviation, and the traffic volume is huge. Because the European part is the main part of the country, while the eastern part is underdeveloped and sparsely populated, the traffic lines show an obvious pattern of dense in the west and sparse in the central and eastern parts. The vast territory makes Russia a big transportation country in the world, and the total length and transportation volume of highways rank among the top in the world.
Expressway [edit]
Russia has a vast territory and a low economic level, so expressways have not become the core mode of transportation, but some expressways in Europe are relatively dense and have huge traffic volume.
Railway [edit]
For a vast country like Russia, railways are particularly important. The total length of Russian railways ranks second in the world, and it is also one of the countries with the largest railway transportation volume. The length of electrified railway once ranked first in the world for a long time, and it was not until 20 12 that it was surpassed by China. The railway between St. Petersburg, its second largest city, and the Soviet port on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean is the longest railway line in the world. Some European railway networks are very dense. Moscow is one of the most important railway hubs in Europe.
Water transport [edit]
There are many rivers and lakes in Russia, but water transportation is not rich. The Volga River, which flows into the Caspian Sea, is the longest and largest inland river in the world and the most important inland waterway in Russia. Although Russia's coastline ranks second in the world, due to its high latitude and long freezing period, only the Atlantic and Pacific coasts have large ports. In recent years, with the intensification of global warming, the sea ice in the Arctic Ocean has gradually melted, making the port status along the Arctic Ocean increasingly important. The main ports in Russia are: St. Petersburg (the largest port in Russia and the main port in Europe), Kaliningrad, Murmansk, Vladivostok, Soviet ports and Khabarovsk (a famous Russian river port located at the intersection of Ussuri River and amur river). Moscow, the capital of Moscow River, has the reputation of "the port of five seas" because it can reach the White Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Azov Sea, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea by digging the Moscow Canal and the Volga-Don Canal.
Aviation [editor]
With the development of economy, aviation has become an important mode of transportation in vast Russia. Moscow, the capital, is the main airport in the world. The main airports in Russia are: Sheremetyevo Second International Airport, Sheremetyevo 1 International Airport, Vnukovovo 1 International Airport, Domodedovo Airport, St. Petersburg International Airport, Nizhny Novgorod Airport, Novosibirsk Airport, Yekaterinburg Airport, Khabarovsk Airport, etc.
Population [edit]
Main project: Russian population
The population change map of Russia ranges from 1950 to 20 10. (Unit: millions of people)
The population of Russia in 20 14 years is1440,000. Although the government gives subsidies to childbearing families, most Russian families choose to have only one child because of concerns about housing, medical care and education.
Due to the vast territory of the Russian Federation, the population density is low; Most of the population is concentrated in the European part of the Russian Federation, the Ural Mountains and southeastern Siberia. There are also many ethnic minorities and indigenous populations in the Russian Federation. Russians account for 865,438+0% of the total population, and the rest are Tatars, Bashkir, Chechens, Chuvash, Germans, Ukrainians, Dagestans, Koreans, Jews and Belarusians. The largest minority is the Tatars.
Language [edit]
Main project: Russian
Russian-speaking areas of the world
Russian is the only official language of Russian countries. Russian (русскийязык) is the most widely used language in Slavic languages. The eastern Slavic branch of the Slavic family. It is mainly used in Russia and other member countries of the former Soviet Union, and is widely used as the first foreign language teaching in schools in Warsaw Treaty member countries. During the Soviet period, Russia was highly valued among the countries it joined. Although many countries in the former Soviet Union have begun to emphasize the importance of local languages, Russian is still the most widely used language in these areas, and it is also the language used by these countries in communication.
Religion [editor]
Main entrance: Russian Orthodox Church
Cathedral of Savior, the seat of patriarch of Moscow and all Russia.
Russian President Dmitry Medvedev attended the Orthodox prayer ceremony.
Orthodox Church is the main religion in the Federation, and other religions include Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam and Buddhism. Most Turkic languages in South Russia and North Caucasus believe in Islam.
Russian Orthodox Church is the largest Orthodox Church group in the world, and its supreme power belongs to the Bishops' Association. The guild was convened as required, and all bishops attended; When the guild is not in session, it is led by the patriarch of Moscow and all Russia, and its Pontifical is located in Moscow. Since February 2009, this position has been held by Kirill I.
There are 654.38 billion Russian citizens who believe in the Orthodox Church, and about 20 million citizens are Muslims. Judging from the current population trend, this imbalance will shift towards the will of the Muslim community, and by 2020, the Muslim population will continue to increase to 20% of the total population. [ 17]
Culture [editor]
Main projects: Russian culture
Russian culture refers to the cultures of Russians and other nationalities living in the Russian Empire, the former Soviet Union and modern Russia.
Literature [editor]
Main projects: Russian literature
Lev tolstoy, a great Russian writer
The broad concept of Russian literature refers to the literature of all Russian-speaking countries, including not only Russia, but also the literature of the former Soviet Union. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the scope of this concept narrowed, referring only to the literature of a certain Russian country. There are still many controversies and ambiguities about the definition of "Russian literature" due to the changefulness and uncertainty of Russian cultural boundaries in history and various political factors in the development of Russia. Generally speaking, people think that literature produced in Russian cultural atmosphere and written in Russian can be classified as "Russian literature"
Education [editing]
Main projects: Russian education and list of Russian universities
Russia has a very high level of education and enjoys a world-class reputation. Russia's educational administrative system can be divided into federal and local, and centralized educational administrative system is implemented. The functions and powers of educational organizations at all levels are as follows:
Federal Ministry of General and Vocational Education: founded in 1996, it is the highest administrative organ in Russia. The main functions and powers are:
Responsible for the formulation and implementation of educational policies.
Check the development of educational science in general secondary education and preschool education, and coordinate with other federal units.
Design and approve the publication of standard courses, syllabuses, research aids, textbooks and method manuals.
Participate in the investigation work of the Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization and the International Bureau of Education.
Cooperate with the Academy of Sciences to estimate the number of preschool education, primary education and secondary education in China.
State Education Bureau:
Directly manage educational institutions at all levels.
Safeguard citizens' legitimate rights to education.
Sports [editor]
Football, ice hockey and tennis are the most popular sports in Russia, and the domestic football super league and ice hockey league are the two most popular sports leagues.
In addition, Russia is also one of the most important gold-winning countries in the 100-year history of Olympic Games. The former Soviet Union and the United States had fierce competition in sports. Russia's traditional Olympic advantages include gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, trampoline, fencing, shooting, synchronized swimming, weightlifting, volleyball, softball and rowing. Because most of Russia's territory is located in high latitudes, it has a unique training ground and venue for the Winter Olympics, and it has also performed well in skiing, figure skating and other projects.
Among the outstanding athletes emerging in recent years, gymnastics "ice beauties" Khorkina, Prince of gymnastics Nemov, rhythmic gymnast Kabayeva, fencer Kachimova and weightlifter Pisarevski have made outstanding achievements and have the strength to win medals or even gold medals in the Olympic Games. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, some outstanding athletes in the former Soviet Union will participate in the Olympic Games on behalf of other countries, some will be naturalized in the United States or Australia, and some synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics players will switch to other industries or go abroad for further study after winning the championship. But it doesn't seem to have much impact on the overall strength of the Russian team.
After the October Revolution, due to political reasons, the former Soviet Union sent a team to participate in the 1952 Summer Olympic Games for the first time. Since then, except for 1984, the Russian team has participated in most events in previous Olympic Games and has become a medal country comparable to the United States.
Moscow once hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1980, but it was completely boycotted by western countries because of its invasion of Afghanistan. In addition, the 20 14 Winter Olympics will also be held in Sochi. 20 10 12 successfully bid for the 20 18 World Cup in Zurich, Switzerland, which will be the third world-class sports event hosted by Russia.
Russia is also a chess power, and the world chess authority Gary Kimovich Kasparov was born in the former Soviet Union.
Military affairs [editor]
Main projects: Russian army
20 10 Moscow red square victory day parade
Tank formation in 20 10 military parade
Russian air force formation parade on 20 10
Russia is a traditional military power. During tsarist Russia, the development of military power was emphasized. During the Soviet period, the military level reached its peak and became a world military power.
1992 on may 7, then Russian president Boris yeltsin signed an order to establish the Ministry of defense of the Russian Federation and take over all the former Soviet troops in the Russian Federation. The Russian army, known as the "Armed Forces of the Russian Federation", was formally established. China people are commonly known as "Russian Army" or "Russian Army". The supreme commander or commander-in-chief of the Russian army is the President of the Russian Federation.
1996, the Russian parliament passed a bill, which reads as follows:
Dissolve the Soviet * * * Production Party and all enterprises and departments under the Soviet * * *, and dissolve the Soviet Red Army;
Establish the Russian armed forces (referred to as the Russian army);
Russian ranks inherited Soviet ranks, but the following ranks were deleted: Marshal of the Soviet Union, Commander-in-Chief of Services and Arms, Marshal of Services and Arms, and Admiral of the fleet.
Russian regular army consists of army, navy, air force, national air defense force (1998 was placed under the command of air force), strategic rocket force, space force and airborne force. It has a huge nuclear arsenal. According to the official announcement in 2005, the number of nuclear warheads was 4,732.
After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the Russian army inherited 70% of the Soviet military power. After downsizing, the number of Russian troops has been reduced to about 6.5438+200,000 at the end of last century. According to the new round of reform plan, it will be cancelled to 654.38+0 million in 2065.438+03. [20]