Robert Crais is a faculty member in the Philosophy Department of new york University at Stony Brook and a historian at Brookhaven National Laboratory. He recently conducted a survey among American physicists, asking them to nominate the most beautiful scientific experiment in history. The Physical World published in September published the first 10 most beautiful experiments, most of which are well-known classics.
Surprisingly, most of the top ten experiments were done by scientists independently, with at most one or two assistants. All the experiments were carried out on the experimental platform, without using large computing tools such as computers, but only a ruler or calculator at most.
From the selection of the top ten classic scientific experiments, we can also clearly see the most important discovery trajectory of scientists since 2000, just like we have a bird's eye view of history. "Physical World" ranks these experiments according to the public's understanding of them. The first experiment is to show the quantum characteristics of the physical world.
However, the development of science is a process of accumulation. On September 25th, American magazine * * * rearranged these experiments in chronological order and made a simple explanation. Eratosthenes measures the circumference of the earth. It is a small town in ancient Egypt, now called Aswan.
In this small town, the sun hangs high overhead at noon in summer: objects have no shadow, and the sun shines directly into deep wells. Eratosthenes was the curator of the Alexandria Library in the 3rd century BC. He realized that this information could help him estimate the circumference of the earth.
On the same day and at the same time in the following years, he measured the shadow of an object in the same place in Alexandria. It is found that the sun's rays are slightly inclined, deviating from the vertical by about 7 degrees.
The rest is the problem of geometry. Suppose the earth is spherical, its circumference should be 360 degrees.
If the two cities form an angle of 7 degrees, it is 7/360 of the circumference, which is the distance of 5000 Greek stadiums at that time. So the circumference of the earth should be 250,000 Greek stadiums.
Today, through orbit measurement, we know that the measurement error of Eratosthenes is only within 5%. In Galileo/KLOC-free fall experiment at the end of 0/6, everyone thought that heavy objects fell faster than light objects, because the great Aristotle once said so.
Galileo, who worked in the department of mathematics at the University of Pisa at that time, boldly challenged the public's views. The famous experiment of the leaning tower of Pisa has become a scientific story: he dropped a light and a heavy object from the leaning tower at the same time, so that everyone could see that both objects landed at the same time.
Galileo may have lost his job at the cost of challenging Aristotle, but he showed the essence of nature, not the authority of human beings, and science made the final decision. Galileo's accelerated experiment Galileo continued to improve his view on the motion of objects.
He made a smooth straight wooden trough more than 6 meters long and 3 meters wide. Then fix the wooden trough obliquely, let the copper balls slide down the inclined plane from the top of the wooden trough, measure the time of each sliding of the copper balls with a water clock, and study the relationship between them.
Aristotle predicted that the speed of rolling ball was uniform; The copper ball rolls twice as long and walks twice as far. Galileo proved that the rolling distance of the copper ball is proportional to the square of time: in twice the time, the copper ball rolled four times because of the constant acceleration of gravity.
(No.8) Newton prism decomposes sunlight. Galileo died the year he was born in isaac newton. Newton graduated from Trinity College of Cambridge University in 1665, then stayed at home for two years to avoid the plague, and then successfully found a job.
At that time, everyone thought that white light was pure light without other colors (Aristotle thought so), and colored light was a kind of light that changed somehow. In order to test this hypothesis, Newton placed a prism under the sun. Through the prism, the light was decomposed into different colors on the wall, which we later called spectrum.
People know that rainbows are colorful, but they think they are abnormal. Newton's conclusion is that it is red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue and purple that have different chromatograms and form a single white light on the surface. If you look deeply, you will find that white light is very beautiful.
(Ranked fourth) Cavendish Torque Experiment Another great contribution of Newton is his law of gravity, but how big is gravity? /kloc-at the end of 0/8, the British scientist Henry cavendish decided to find out this gravity. He hung a 6-foot-long wooden stick with small metal balls tied on both sides with wires, like a dumbbell; Then, two 350-pound shot putters are brought close together to generate enough gravity to rotate the dumbbell and twist the wire.
Then measure the tiny rotation with a self-made instrument. The measurement results are surprisingly accurate. He measured the parameters of the gravitational constant, and on this basis, cavendish calculated the density and mass of the earth.
Cavendish's calculation shows that the earth weighs 6.0* 1024 kg, or 13 trillion pounds. Thomas Young's light interference experiment Newton is not always correct.
After many arguments, Newton made the scientific community accept that light is composed of particles, not waves. 1830, Thomas Young, a British doctor and physicist, verified this view with experiments.
He punched a small hole in the shutter, then covered it with thick paper and poked a small hole in the paper. Let the light pass through and reflect the transmitted light with a mirror.
Then he used a piece of paper about 1/30 inches thick to divide the light into two beams in the middle. As a result, I saw the cross light and shadow.
This shows that two beams of light can interfere with each other like waves. This experiment played a vital role in the establishment of quantum theory a century later.
Michel foucault pendulum experiment Last year, scientists placed a pendulum clock at the South Pole and observed its swing. They are repeating a famous experiment in Paris.
185 1 year, French scientist michel foucault made a reality in public.
2. What are the famous laboratories in the world? 1.At the beginning of the 20th century, Leiden Cryogenic Laboratory in the Netherlands, under the leadership of K. Ones, took the lead in realizing the liquefaction of helium and discovered superconductivity, and has been in a leading position in the fields of cryology and superconductivity.
Especially through the development of large-scale industrial technology laboratories, a new era of big science has been opened. The Netherlands is a small industrial country, and the experience of Leiden Cryogenic Laboratory in the Netherlands is particularly worth learning and learning from.
2. As the birthplace of electron linear accelerator, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory of University of California, Berkeley was established in 1930s, when the economy was in depression. Lawrence, the founder, built the first batch of accelerators with his unique organizational skills and fully tapped the manpower, material resources and financial resources of the United States. Under his leadership, laboratory members carried out extensive scientific research, discovered a series of overweight elements, and opened up research directions such as radioisotope and heavy ion science.
It is the pioneer of a series of famous laboratories in the United States: Livermore, Los Alamos, Brookhaven, etc. It is also a model of hundreds of accelerator laboratories in the world. The second kind of laboratories belong to national institutions, and some even international institutions, which are jointly undertaken by several countries.
Most of them are engaged in basic metrology, high-tech projects, super-large scientific research projects and national defense military tasks. For example: Third, the German Imperial Institute of Technical Physics (PTR for short) was established in 1884, which is equivalent to the German National Bureau of Metrology and is famous for accurately measuring thermal radiation.
/kloc-At the end of 0/9th century, researchers in this institute devoted themselves to the study of blackbody radiation, which led Planck to discover the action quantum. It can be said that this laboratory is the birthplace of quantum theory.
Fourth, the British National Physical Laboratory (NPL) The British National Physical Laboratory is a long-established measurement benchmark research center in the UK, which was established in 1900. The year of 198 1 is divided into six departments: electrical science, material application, mechanics and optical metrology, numerical analysis and computer science, quantum metrology, radiation science and acoustics.
As a measurement center of highly industrialized countries, it has extensive daily contact with national industries, departments and commercial institutions, and as a national representative institution, it has contact with international organizations and national measurement centers. It also provides suggestions on environmental protection, such as noise, electromagnetic radiation and air pollution.
There are about 1 1,000 scientific and technical personnel in the National Physics Laboratory of the United Kingdom, with the highest number of 1 and 1 1,800 in 1969. V. CERN CERN was founded in 1954, and it is the largest international experimental organization.
Its establishment, principles, organization, topic selection, funding and implementation of research plan are all very distinctive. 1983, W and Z0 particles were found here. The following year, two physicists in the center, Lu Biya and Vandermeyer, won the Nobel Prize in physics.
CERN was initiated by UNESCO and planned by 1 1 European countries from 195 1. Now it has 13 member countries. The funds are shared by member States, and the director is appointed by the Council for a term of five years.
Under the management committee, research committee and experimental committee, the organization is lean and well managed. Employees * * * as many as 6000 people, mostly for the recruitment system.
In the past 30 years, proton synchrocyclotron, proton synchrotron, cross storage ring (ISR), super proton synchrotron (SPS) and large electron-positron collider (LEP) have been built successively, and it has the largest hydrogen bubble chamber (BEBL) in the world. As an international experimental institution, CERN has abundant financial, material and technical resources.
Because this work involves many countries and organizations, various contradictions and frictions will inevitably appear in the construction and research. However, through consultation and cooperation, the work is progressing smoothly, and the huge plan can be fulfilled on time, and one after another remarkable achievements have been achieved (see: High Energy Physics, No.3, 1985, p.26). The third kind of laboratory is directly under the Ministry of Industry and Enterprise, serving the development and research of industrial technology.
The most famous ones are Bell Laboratories and IBM Research Laboratories. Bell Laboratories, formerly known as Bell Telephone Laboratories, was founded in 1925 and is the most influential research laboratory operated by industrial enterprises.
The main purpose is to carry out research in communication science. There are 20,000 researchers, 6 research departments, *** 14 branches and 56 laboratories, and the annual expenditure is $2.2 billion, of which 10% is used for basic research. Besides radio electronics, there are also high levels in solid-state physics (including magnetism, semiconductor and surface physics), astrophysics, quantum physics and nuclear physics.
This research institution has a large number of high-level researchers. For decades, the Nobel Prize in physics has been won by Davidson, who invented electron diffraction; Shockley, Badin and Bratin who invented the transistor; Downs and Sholow who invented the laser; Theoretical physicist Anderson; Penzias and radio astronomer Wilson. The experience of Bell Laboratories is noteworthy.
Industrial enterprises attach importance to scientific research, especially basic research; Development and research of the trinity; Leaders have foresight and courage, and are good at grasping dynamic new topics. These are all useful experiences. 7.IBM research laboratory IBM is the abbreviation of international Bisises Machinery Company, and has now developed into a multinational company, occupying a leading position in the world computer production and innovation.
Founded in 19 1 1 year, formerly known as put- watch-record company (C.T.R), it consists of three companies that produce statistical machinery and time recorders. These companies were established in 1889, 1890, 189 1 year respectively.
By the end of 1984, IBM had more than 39,000 employees and its business covered 130 countries. IBM Research Laboratory, also known as IBM Research Department, has 3,500 researchers (including many postdoctoral and visiting scholars), specializing in basic scientific research and exploring product-related technologies, which is characterized by combining the two.
Scientists working here, on the one hand, promote basic science, on the other hand, put forward new scientific ideas beneficial to practical application. The research department has four research centers: (1) Thomas J. Watson Research Center in new york, USA.
Engaged in fruitful research in computer science, input/output technology, mathematics and physics.
3. Introduction to the Laboratory of the School of History and Culture of Tianjin Normal University The laboratory of the School of History and Culture was established with the approval of the school in March 2006.
The laboratory consists of simulated tour guide laboratory, cultural relic identification and restoration laboratory, calligraphy and painting mounting and restoration laboratory and courseware production center, with a total area of about 500 square meters. Mainly for history, tourism management, museum science, but also for other related majors. The laboratory has more than 350 sets of equipment, worth about 2.5 million yuan, of which 6 1 set of equipment 10000 yuan.
The simulated tour guide laboratory and the network computer room are located in rooms C506 and C508 of Xingwen Building respectively, covering an area of about 360 square meters, including more than 100 computers, 98% of which are equipped with P4 or above, and the recording and editing equipment has now reached the professional high-definition level. The main undergraduate experimental courses are computer-aided history teaching and simulated tour guide.
The Cultural Relics Room is located in Room C509-5 16 of Xingwen Building, with an area of about 240 square meters. Including stone tools, jade, pottery, bronzes, porcelain, calligraphy and painting and other cultural relics 1800, mainly used for teaching and research of history and museum science. Undergraduate experimental courses include calligraphy and painting restoration and mounting, antique miscellaneous appreciation and appraisal, jewelry and jade appraisal, etc.
Courseware production center is responsible for the development, production and website maintenance of teaching courseware and online courses in the whole hospital. The college has developed more than 30 multimedia courseware and online courses, including national prize 1, 2 municipal prizes and 4 school prizes.
4. What are the eight crazy experiments in history? A great god once said that practice is the only criterion for testing truth.
The experiment is like a battle. Once the battle starts, all the preliminary designs will go up in smoke Madness is not an end in itself, but it proves human's thirst for knowledge ... 1. 1600: If there is a Guinness World Record for life in weighing scale in his early years, Saint Dorio should be among them: the famous doctor in Padua spent more time on weighing scale than anyone else.
Worktable, chair, bed-everything he has is connected to the balance device on the roof with a rope. In this way, St. Dorio tirelessly recorded his weight changes in the past 30 years.
He weighed and recorded everything, from the weight of food he ate to the weight of waste he excreted. He published these experimental results about human body function in his Static Medicine, which is regarded as a classic by modern people.
One of the most famous assertions is related to the amazing fact that people excrete only a small part of the weight of the food they eat. If a person eats 8 Jin of meat and drinks 8 Jin of wine a day, 5 Jin will evaporate without being noticed.
This invisible evaporation is first and foremost sweat. Saint Dorio was the first person to measure this weight, so he became the originator of quantitative experimental medicine.
Before that, doctors could only record by drawing. 2. 1620: aquatic wood Van Hellmundt was the last alchemist and the first chemist, and his world outlook was a combination of magic and science.
He studies gases in the laboratory and observes the fermentation of substances. "If a dirty shirt is used to block the gap in the container containing wheat seeds, the smell will change after about 2 1 day, and the rot will penetrate into the wheat shell, thus turning the wheat into a mouse."
I don't know when he picked up the hoe and started the willow experiment. He is convinced that all substances-stones, soil, animals and plants-are ultimately produced by water.
This experiment is to test this hypothesis in plants. He planted a willow, pulled it out of the soil five years later, and weighed the soil and the willow separately: during this period, the soil only lost 2 ounces, while the weight of the tree 169 pounds 3 ounces increased to more than 30 times.
Van Helmut came to the only reasonable conclusion at that time: "164 pounds of wood, bark and roots all come from water." Because he did nothing but water the young trees regularly.
His idea inspired many scholars, and later people knew that his statement was not entirely correct: plants need not only water, but also air, light and a small amount of substances on the ground. His experiment initiated the exploration of a mysterious process, which was called "photosynthesis" by later generations.
3./KOOC-0/783: Flying Sheep/KOOC-0/783 September/KOOC-0/9, the first passengers-a sheep, a rooster and a duck-rose into the air in a hot air balloon. Venue: Versailles Palace.
The inspiration for Joseph and Etienne's first hot air balloon experiment is unknown. To be sure, Joseph tried to "lock a cloud in the bag and push the bag into the air with the help of the rising power of the cloud" by introducing the smoke from burning into the paper bag.
Etienne believes that he has found the ideal gas to push the balloon up-an unpleasant smell of smoke. In fact, air expands when heated, which is lighter than air with the same volume and lower temperature.
12, Etienne started to ignite under the platform. This 18 meter high balloon carried the sheep, chickens and ducks in the wicker basket to an altitude of 440 meters.
Thousands of spectators at the scene looked at the UFO in surprise and cheered. Eight minutes later, the balloon landed 3 kilometers away from the take-off place, a branch scratched the plane, knocked open the wicker basket and the animals ran out.
People found sheep grazing peacefully on the grass not far away, ducks were healthy, and only the right wing of the rooster was injured. Soon, the witness who saw the cock injured reported the situation at that time: "Its wing was injured because it was trampled by a sheep half an hour ago."
A month later, the first man boarded the balloon 1783+065438 on June 5. 4. 190 1 year: the gunshots of the killing experiment in the classroom rang at 7: 45. In the criminal investigation class at the University of Berlin, two people quarreled. One of them pulled out his gun and shot the other.
The audience didn't know that it was just a toy pistol. This performance was the experimental scene of German psychologist Stern. Stern noticed that most people's memory state is not ideal, and the reliability of memory is particularly important for court work.
After the gunman opened fire, 15 "older college students" or alternate officials present provided written or oral witness reports about what happened. Three people were on the night of the incident or one day after the incident, nine people were after 1 week and three people were after 5 weeks.
No one can recall all the details of 15, and the error rate is 27%~80%. Unsurprisingly, many witnesses can't accurately recall what the client said, and even several witnesses fabricated what didn't happen.
The low reliability of testimony has aroused heated discussion in the legal field. Stern advocates that experts should intervene in the process of proof and provide advice on the judgment of the credibility of testimony in court.
5. 190 1 year: soul weight 2 1 gram. According to the bizarre logic of the American doctor McDougall, if the function of the soul continues to exist after death, it must occupy a place in the living body. And because according to the "latest scientific theory", all objects occupying space have a certain weight, and the state of the soul can be determined by "weighing people in the process of death".
So he made a precise balance: a bed suspended on a bracket, and measured the total weight of the bed and the objects on it, and the value could be accurate to 5 grams. The best subjects are tuberculosis patients, who "look almost motionless" when they die.
190 1 April 10, 17: 30, the first dying man was put on his soul scale by McDougall. Three hours and 40 minutes later, "he swallowed his last breath.
With his death, the cross bar of the balance reached the upper caliper, and the sound was clear and audible. McDougall has to throw in another $2 coin to make ends meet.
This is 2 1 gram. The following five subjects painted a chaotic picture: two measurements were invalid; After a death, the weight dropped and remained stable; The weight dropped twice and then rose again; .
5. Sources of Laboratory Accreditation (History) In the 1940s, due to the lack of consistent testing standards and means, Australia was unable to provide arms for the British army in World War II, so it set out to establish a national unified testing system. From 65438 to 0947, Australia first established the world's first accreditation system for testing laboratories-National Association of Testing Institutions (NATA). From 65438 to 0966, British Calibration Service (BCS) established a calibration laboratory accreditation system. Since then, some developed countries in the world have established their own laboratory accreditation bodies.
In 1973, the laboratory accreditation system was adopted in the then GATT)R Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement). 1977, the International Laboratory Accreditation Conference (ILAC) was established at the initiative of the United States, and it was transformed into an entity, namely international laboratory accreditation cooperation (ILAC) in 1996.
The traditional definition of the word "accreditation" is: the act of screening, identification and accreditation (such as recognizing that schools, hospitals and social work institutions meet the standards), or the state of being screened, identified and accredited as qualified. Similarly, ISO/IEC Guide 2: 1996 defines certification as a procedure in which an authority formally recognizes the ability of an institution or individual to complete a specific task.
Extending to laboratory accreditation, it is defined as a procedure that an authority formally recognizes that a testing/calibration laboratory and its personnel are capable of performing specific types of testing/calibration. The so-called authoritative organization refers to a * * * or non-governmental organization with legal or administrative authorization. This recognition means that the testing/calibration laboratory has the management ability and technical ability to work in a specific field. It can be seen that the essence of laboratory accreditation is the recognition of specific testing/calibration projects carried out by the laboratory, rather than the recognition of all business activities of the laboratory.
The latest definition of accreditation is given in the recent ISO/IEC1701:2004 "General requirements for accreditation bodies for conformity assessment-accreditation of conformity assessment bodies": formally indicating conformity assessment bodies (conformity assessment bodies refer to organizations that provide the following conformity assessment services: calibration, testing, inspection, management system certification, personnel registration and products. Extending to laboratory accreditation is a third-party certificate that officially shows that the testing/calibration laboratory is capable of carrying out specific testing/calibration.
6. Historical Evolution of State Key Laboratory In order to support basic research and applied basic research, the former State Planning Commission organized and implemented the 1984 State Key Laboratory Construction Plan. The main task is to build a number of national key laboratories in relevant universities and research institutes of the Ministry of Education, Chinese Academy of Sciences and other departments based on the original infrastructure.
1984-2009, the state key laboratory has gone through the initial stage and development stage, and is entering the perfect stage.
First, the initial stage (1984-1997): building 155 national key laboratory and exploring the management system and operation mechanism.
A number of experimental research bases for basic research have been built. 1984- 1993, the state invested 9 1 10,000 yuan with three scientific and technological funds, and established 8 1 national key laboratory, focusing on basic theoretical research; 199 1- 1995, and the state invested 86.34 million dollars and 654.38+78 million yuan respectively with loans from the world bank, and established 75 state key laboratories, with emphasis on applied basic research and engineering. Two batches of key laboratories were completed, forming the preliminary framework of the national key laboratory plan.
State financial support: 1989 The former State Science and Technology Commission set up the "Special Project of Key Laboratory Operation Subsidy" to subsidize the daily operation and opening of laboratories. 1995- 1997 The former State Planning Commission upgraded the instruments and equipment of 67 state key laboratories.
Establishment of evaluation system: 65438-0990. The former State Planning Commission and the former State Science and Technology Commission respectively entrusted the National Natural Science Foundation of China to evaluate the State Key Laboratory. 1994- 1997, the former State Planning Commission and the State Science and Technology Commission * * * entrusted the National Natural Science Foundation of China to evaluate the State Key Laboratories in different fields, which were funded by equipment renewal funds and operating subsidies respectively.
Second, the development stage (1998 -2007): standardize and improve the management of state key laboratories and explore the construction of new laboratories.
The Ministry of Science and Technology has standardized the procedures of "issuing guidelines, recommending departments, evaluating experts and selecting the best project", built 88 laboratories in major national demand areas and emerging frontier areas, eliminated 17 laboratories with poor operation, and established a competitive mechanism of "survival of the fittest". In addition, according to the development of the laboratory, the construction and management methods of the laboratory were revised and the laboratory management was strengthened. In particular, the laboratory evaluation rules have been greatly revised, emphasizing the guiding ideology of quality, qualitative evaluation and overall evaluation, canceling quantitative indicators and guiding the laboratory to produce important original innovation results.
Since 2000, based on the work of the State Key Laboratory, the interdisciplinary and comprehensive national laboratory (pilot) work has been promoted.
In 2003, in order to promote local basic research and base construction, the construction of national key laboratory cultivation base was carried out.
In 2006, in order to strengthen the construction of national technological innovation system, the work of building national key laboratories relying on enterprises and transformation institutes was carried out.
By the end of 2007, there were 258 State Key Laboratories in operation (including 38 State Key Laboratories of enterprises), 6 National Pilot Laboratories and 44 State Key Laboratories Cultivation Bases built by the provincial government. These research and experimental bases basically cover the key disciplines of basic research, and the discipline layout and structural layout are basically reasonable.
3. Promotion stage (2008-): The establishment of special fund marks that the State Key Laboratory has entered a new development stage.
In March 2008, the Ministry of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Finance jointly announced the establishment of special funds for State Key Laboratories, and increased the stable support for State Key Laboratories from three aspects: open operation, self-selected research and updating of scientific research instruments and equipment.
In 2007, the funding was1400 million yuan, nearly 2 billion yuan in 2008, and it is expected to reach 2.5 billion yuan in 2009. The establishment of the special fund is conducive to creating a scientific research environment that tolerates failure, abandons impetuousness and concentrates on research. It is an important guarantee for the sound and rapid development of the State Key Laboratory and marks that the work of the State Key Laboratory has entered a new stage of development.
7. Introduction to the Laboratory of History and Culture College of Tianjin Normal University The Laboratory of History and Culture College was established with the approval of the school in March 2006.
The laboratory consists of simulated tour guide laboratory, cultural relic identification and restoration laboratory, calligraphy and painting mounting and restoration laboratory and courseware production center, with a total area of about 500 square meters. Mainly for history, tourism management, museum science, but also for other related majors. The laboratory has more than 350 sets of equipment, worth about 2.5 million yuan, of which 6 1 set of equipment 10000 yuan.
The simulated tour guide laboratory and the network computer room are located in rooms C506 and C508 of Xingwen Building respectively, covering an area of about 360 square meters, including more than 100 computers, 98% of which are equipped with P4 or above, and the recording and editing equipment has now reached the professional high-definition level. The main undergraduate experimental courses are computer-aided history teaching and simulated tour guide.
The Cultural Relics Room is located in Room C509-5 16 of Xingwen Building, with an area of about 240 square meters. Including stone tools, jade, pottery, bronzes, porcelain, calligraphy and painting and other cultural relics 1800, mainly used for teaching and research of history and museum science. Undergraduate experimental courses include calligraphy and painting restoration and mounting, antique miscellaneous appreciation and appraisal, jewelry and jade appraisal, etc.
Courseware production center is responsible for the development, production and website maintenance of teaching courseware and online courses in the whole hospital. The college has developed more than 30 multimedia courseware and online courses, including national prize 1, 2 municipal prizes and 4 school prizes.