In the eyes of Arthur Herman, the author of this book, Scotland not only has its own history and culture, but more importantly, although it was very backward and poor before the18th century, it quickly joined the "Atlantic Age" from the18th century, which played a very important role in the formation of the modern world.
My previous impression of "Scotland" mainly came from two aspects: First, from the film Braveheart directed and starred by mel gibson, he told the story of a Scottish hero who rebelled against the English rulers, which made me distinguish the conflict and war between England in the south of England and Scotland in the north for the first time. Secondly, from Adam Smith and david hume, two great thinkers in the18th century, their thoughts changed the process of the whole modern world, and another scientist, Watt, directly promoted the arrival of the industrial age. In this book, we can see that Scots influence the world process with their own ideas. When we invest and think about the economic origin, pattern and trend of the whole era, we also need to put the spiritual characteristics of people in that era in order to see the whole picture of that era more comprehensively.
1. Indicators for measuring progress: How far is it from the past?
-"Balancing the past and the present, not discussing the present with the past"
"According to Locke's opinion, the key is not whether Aiken Hai ever said that he violated God's law. Religious belief is purely a personal conscience, and official institutions have no right to interfere. He echoed the liberal point of view:' the real church should take tolerance as its concept', and also agreed with Anstor's point of view. The power of secular institutions should be limited to' secular affairs' and has nothing to do with religious affairs. Locke's views aroused repercussions in Britain, which led to the emergence of 1689 Tolerance Act and laid the foundation for the modern separation of church and state. But Scotland and Massachusetts can still try and execute witches in court. These two places cannot be compared. " (P0 19)
"The tide is gone. 1697 65438+1At 2 o'clock on October 8, Aikenhai was taken to the gallows between Edinburgh and Rice; Facing the cold wind, he issued a deathbed declaration:' a sincere book has been slandered, and I will seek benevolence and die without regret.' He said in a trembling voice, "The human heart's desire for truth is endless!" He did it at the cost of his life. ..... The executioner moved the ladder, the prisoner's body was thrown away, and his life was over before he 19 years old.
"This is the scene of Scotland at the end of the 17th century. The Presbyterian church with strict religious rules is in power; Ruthless and even harsh Calvinism is in power; Blasphemy and witchcraft can be tried; In the face of requests, reasons or facts for mercy, there are strange and even abnormal contradictions.
"This is the entrance for Scotland to enter the modern world, but calling it' traditional Scotland' may be misleading. In fact, this is a relatively new product. The forces advocating the execution of Aikenhai only inherited the culture of1early 00, and the reform of Scotland came soon.
"... 1696, the traditional forces are dying. Sending Aikenhai to the gallows symbolizes the demise of Calvinism in Scotland. A generation led by priests, university professors and lawyers, deeply baptized by the progressive atmosphere from Britain, is gradually emerging.
"... this culturally and materially backward country, led by the far-sighted Scots, is about to take on a new look. When they do this, the world changes. By the end of18th century, almost all the systems, ideas, mentality and customs symbolizing the modern world had been completed by the Scots. Scots cut through thorns all over the world, opening a new era in human history; The so-called concept of "human history" mostly comes from Scottish originality.
"The Scots' view of history is based on the emphasis on progress. Just like individuals, society itself will keep pace with the times. Society needs new skills, mentality and a new understanding of personal abilities and how free individuals should be. The Scots revealed to the world one of the indicators to measure progress-how far away from the past. Balance the ancient and the present, and don't discuss the present with the ancient. For Adam Smith, david hume, Henry Brauhan, Sir Walter Scott and many modern Scottish heroes mentioned in this book, the past is the trial and execution of Aikenhai Scotland. " (P020-023)
(Zeng Xingzhi's Note: Due to the influence of traditional ideas, China people are most accustomed to "discussing the present with the past". I am disgusted with this practice. First of all, they are ignorant, because they have left the "ancient" and only saw the beautiful side of ancient history, but they can't see most of the ugly side at all; Secondly, this is very stupid, because history and times are constantly developing. It is impossible to criticize morality with our subjective will, but we should see the reasons for the current development. Needless to say here, in the face of this increasingly popular retro trend, I hold a critical attitude and a distant attitude. They are not worthy of criticism at all, because their methodology is completely wrong. )
2. The tortuous process of the alliance between Scotland and England.
"Smart people have their own views on this, including many original shareholders of Dai Ruian Company. All this proves a fact: without England's help, Scotland will not get any benefits in Atlantic trade, and as long as the two regimes are under a single monarchy, it is absolutely impossible to make progress. When the royal family has to choose between the interests of the two countries, it will definitely favor prosperous England. In this way, Scotland will always be the second child, and unless there is any big change, everyone will be happy.
"So the political elites of the two countries began to talk about a term: alliance. In the past, he only appeared occasionally in parliamentary debates or in pen and ink, but now he has been put on the stage by a series of setbacks of Dai Ruian. British political circles generally agree with this.
"... during the five years of Dai Ryan's expedition, alliance became a hot political issue between the two countries. The Scottish Parliament agreed in principle to set up a consultative committee. Everyone knows that the current relationship is extremely bad and it is impossible to spend it like this for a long time. It is bound to change course and create a new situation. What is the key situation? ”(P048-049)
"(1707 65438+ 10) 16, all members attended, and the treaty (the alliance between Scotland and England) was passed by 1 10 to 69 votes. Douglas's scepter was taken off by himself, and the kingdom of Scotland entered history.
"... the tragic prophecy didn't come true. On the contrary, the alliance did not dig out the grave, but dug up the Jinshan silver mine, dug up the source of promoting the economy and the engine of creating wealth. It took only a generation for Scotland to leap from a poor third-rate country to a modern forest, with a thriving cultural outlook and a complete social structure. She is no longer a slave of Britain, but has experienced unprecedented freedom and liberation, and made rapid progress in various fields, and tasted the sweetness of' leap-forward growth' for the first time. ”(P064-066)
"In the eyes of far-sighted businessmen and landlords in Scotland, a basic fact gradually emerged. British people are willing to pay high taxes because of its background: the government will make good use of financial resources. As early as the middle of17th century, Britain established a strict and cheap bureaucratic system, which laid the foundation for the stability of the political map and highly demonstrated the efficiency of government operation. Maintaining social order through law enforcement agencies; Building roads between the capital London and major counties to speed up the transportation of goods and information transmission; Pacify the landlords and nobles with noble leisure; Kings and overseas colonies are protected by100000 troops; A powerful navy cruises to keep the navigation channel smooth and ensure that the glorious day of the empire shines all over the world.
"Scotland is tightly bound by this alliance treaty, dragging all the way to the road of reform, shaping the political environment and ensuring life, freedom and property. This is an earth-shaking change. /kloc-The Scots in the 0/8th century finally realized that the government was nothing. Strong national strength can protect the market, but it can't stop social change and suppress economic reform.
"As a junior member of Great Britain, it is good for Scotland. Apart from the barley riots or the James riots, the London Parliament rarely took her seriously. Through a strong government system, social order can be maintained, and the sky is high and the emperor is far away. When England and European countries stayed in the state-owned system, Scottish and American capitalist businessmen walked in front of them, which fully reflected the advantages of laissez-faire private enterprises. " (P070)
"Adam Smith, Hume and other great thinkers can deeply understand that change is bound to pay a price, and short-term losses are inevitable, and such losses can usually be made up by long-term interests." "Long-term view", "weigh the gains and losses" and "in general"-these are all positive thoughts held by Scottish Enlightenment people in the18th century-unless they realize it later. For the strange nature of modern society, the essence of Scottish balance is unparalleled in the world. The Treaty of Alliance is proof of this.
"The factors contributing to the alliance are very complicated, including far-sighted political views, careful strategies focusing on the future, and even patriotism. However, it is undeniable that most people are not in a hurry to improve their current situation in order to seek personal gain. How can their motives be despicable? Unexpectedly, what it did-destroying this independent country in a short time, involving the north and the south in the political whirlpool, and pushing the Scottish economy into a desperate situation-became a huge promoter for Scotland to enter the modern forest in time. " (P07 1)
3. hutcheson: Starting from the egoism of self-happiness, moving towards altruism.
"Although influenced by carmichael, Cooper, Pufendorf and others, hutcheson established his own ideas. He believes that human beings are born with an inherent moral concept, a basic cognition to distinguish right from wrong, good and evil, and also the ability that God gives to human beings according to their self-image. According to the framework of primitive nature, human beings will be happy when they do good deeds, and they will also agree with others or their own good deeds. '
"In other words, we are born with the ability of moral judgment, just as we are born with an open mouth to eat. Moral judgment (this is wrong, that is right) is a talent of human beings, but it is different from various judgments such as judging distance. It will be shown through our emotions. Love is the most important expression, especially love for others, which is the starting point of all moral behaviors.
"... hutcheson believes that the ultimate goal of life is to pursue happiness. Confident that he can satisfy all levels of desires, he (human) must be in a happy state. Vulgar people will mistake this for the satisfaction of material conditions: food, wine and lewdness. Hutcheson said that helping others is the highest form of happiness. In a paper published in Dublin, he pointed out that from Socrates' time to now, everyone has fully reflected this reality. The truest, most universal and most positive happiness and the happiness of life all include kindness to others.
"... after his explanation, self-interest and altruism no longer directly conflict. The two are combined in the highest moral concept. ”(P086-087)
(Zeng Xingzhi's Note: 1, hutcheson is Adam Smith's teacher. I can see a lot of hutcheson's influence from the thoughts in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, especially in the concepts of "empathy" and "altruism brought by egoism", and such thoughts have even been included in The Wealth of Nations; From my personal experience and understanding, I agree with hutcheson's point of view more and more. Indeed, our life is the pursuit of happiness. At the beginning, some primary happiness can satisfy us, but with the deepening, we will seek higher happiness, and this happiness is altruism. Starting from the self-interest of self-happiness, I moved towards the altruism of helping others, which pointed out a direction for my future road. After basically realizing my personal dream, I will shift my focus to giving to society and others. )
4. Trade development of Glasgow after the Union.
"Many people think that family business is a successful practice in Glasgow, but this is not the case. They have the geographical advantage of reselling the goods exchanged in North America to the Mediterranean and Baltic regions-which is profitable. However, the secret of the success of these tobacco tycoons lies in financial statements: creating financial resources from various places while saving costs. They use various methods to raise funds, buy merchant ships, build warehouses and buy stocks (they buy tobacco directly from farmers of origin, unlike British businessmen who only resell tobacco to earn commissions), including loans from banks. Since 1740, there have been at least six banks specializing in commercial loans, including Glasgow Merchant Shipping Company and Jiyu Bank.
"Partners invest in such companies and only get back 5% interest every year, and the rest of the money continues to roll in and create more wealth. This makes Glasgow's tobacco trade the most wealthy industry in Britain. It thrives in prosperity and can survive even in depression.
"/kloc-The tobacco industry in Glasgow in the 0/8th century was led by a group of old-school entrepreneurs: in order to make money, they took risks and failed. 1772, the Berg family company was taken over by the bank because it could not lend money, while other companies such as Wylie, McCaw, Dunlop and French survived the bankruptcy crisis. When one person collapses, another person will immediately take his place. This is an industry that constantly renews itself. The increasingly fierce competition forces everyone to actively save costs in order to be in an invincible position. Glasgow's tobacco industry has shaped the embryonic form of modern capitalism. " (P 165- 166)
5. Adam Smith: Integrating the pursuit of self-interest and collective cooperation.
"Adam Smith's hometown is in the town of Kirkatti near Edinburgh Bay. My father studied law and later worked in the customs unit in the town. This job is not easy. After the alliance with England, smuggling trade along the coast of Scotland was rampant. Old Smith was exhausted by his busy dealing with private bandits all day. In fact, these private bandits are well-behaved people who are forced to take risks in order to make a living. Smith learned a lesson from this: when the interests are current, people will be driven by nature and will not hesitate to confront the government-evading tariffs is the most obvious example. Fifty years later, in The Wealth of Nations, he repeated the same old tune: "People have a strong instinct to improve their own situation ... Only by this, without external assistance, can not only make society prosperous, but also eliminate all obstacles caused by man-made laws."
"... in many ways, Smith combined hutcheson's" dove "who advocated human kindness with Hume's" winner "inspiration. Despite the integration, in fact, the confrontation between the two factions has never stopped, and the war has continued into modern times. This is the conflict of human nature-both at home and abroad. Smith has the courage to directly analyze the essence of conflict, which is also his great achievement and provides a way for future generations to explore. He is one of the great thinkers, and his influence will never decline. This is the real factor, not the name given to capitalist preachers. ”(P 192- 193)
"Based on the concept of Monterrey, Smith exposed a deeper contradiction: in order to pursue our own interests, we are forced to deal with others. This is the case in every society. With the help of others, you don't have to do everything yourself, no matter hunting, fishing, farming … things are much easier. Smith pointed out that the essence of capitalism lies in the pursuit of self-interest and collective cooperation. On the one hand, endless opportunities are derived, reducing the direct labor paid in the process of pursuing interests; On the other hand, in order to constantly find buyers and sellers, a huge interdependent supply and demand network has been formed, which combines people into the same interest body in a complicated way. "A person living in a civilized society needs the cooperation and help of many people," Smith said, "even if he doesn't know many people all his life. '
"Next, he solved another contradiction: the market is interdependent, and everyone has the freedom to pursue business opportunities. In other words, the human mind is not bound. According to hutcheson, happiness is freedom, provided that you don't interfere with the freedom of others; Homer emphasizes that the happiness of owning property is an extension of self-personality. A combination of the two. In order to gain a place in the ever-changing business network and pursue real happiness, we must be completely liberated and get rid of the fetters. Independence is the totem of the commercial society ... Capitalism breaks the vicious circle and provides an independent, material-rich, interdependent and happy environment for everyone. " (P206-207)
6. Hume: Reason must obey emotion.
"In his first book, Hume creatively tried to subvert this tradition. He threatened:' Reason must obey emotion!'
"The philosophical foundation of two thousand years was overthrown overnight. Hume pointed out that human beings are not ruled by reason. The role of reason is just a tool: let us know how to satisfy our desires. The source of desire comes from the contradictory complex of emotions-anger, lust, fear, sadness, jealousy, pleasure, vanity and the desire to live according to rational principles-or at the bottom-the cognition generated by following rationality. The reason why we do this is not the reason itself, but the habit. After all, human beings are habitual animals-the product of the social environment in which their emotions can operate. We learn to restrain our inner enthusiasm and seek our best interests according to social constraints.
"... Hume thinks that self-interest is everything. The power that dominates human behavior is not rationality, but a sense of responsibility to others, which is also an indispensable factor in morality and law and the beginning of government system.
"... Hume further pointed out that there is a cross-flow of people's desires in society, and people who join the WTO can't get out. Without external constraints, the world will definitely be chaotic ... but even the most efficient social system can't regulate everyone's behavior for personal interests. It is no good to resort to reason at this time. On the other hand, reason is the slave of emotion. In the final analysis, the problem is still emotion.
"Hume's conclusion is that a civilized society must have a mechanism to channel people's emotions and make them develop in a constructive direction. By instilling custom norms into each member and making it a habit, destructive impulses can be transformed into constructive concepts. " (P 194- 195)
"'No emotion can surpass the desire for benefits,' Hume said,' but desire itself can be guided.' He further pointed out:' human beings can never overcome the narrow souls of themselves or others. Everyone is short-sighted and short-sighted, and only cares about the present.' This is human nature, don't try to change it. The only solution is to create a golden rule of' I won't attack you, you won't attack me', trying to provide a safe social structure.
"In this world for everyone, this is also a last resort. Even if people occasionally abandon themselves and take care of others, the degree is extremely limited', which shows that morality is generally a custom; Rationality is useless in the real world, and advocating rationality will only be ignored; Morality comes from the heart and has nothing to do with the gods in heaven. The world is infinitely vast, and you can spend it freely. Human beings have the freedom to pursue happiness-but they must have some form of authority and power to' punish people who make mistakes and violence, make people obey the rules, and pursue substantive and long-term interests'. According to Hume, the essence of civilized society is not sacred.
"... Hume pointed out an obvious fact for him: society can successfully lead human emotions in a positive direction; Based on past failures, we learned to improve the government system and strengthen the goal of protecting human rights. Britain's transition from feudalism to modernization is an obvious example. The role of enterprises is the engine to promote reform.
"Business promotes freedom, freedom brings culture, and culture promotes human spirit. The whole process is closely related. As Hume said:' Unless there is a free government system first, art and science cannot be promoted.'
"However, Hume also warned. Freedom is a good thing, but there must be checks and balances. After all, human beings are emotional animals, and if they are completely left alone, they will become emotional slaves.
"... in view of this, the modern political system must contain the tension caused by the two complementary conflicts of safeguarding individual freedom and safeguarding social system. Absolute power will lead to corruption and eventually destroy society itself. Hume foresaw the end of totalitarianism. He also pointed out that even in the "freest society", "a considerable degree of freedom" must be sacrificed, but this is also the price of "enjoying freedom."
"The key is: how much freedom should be sacrificed? Hume did not provide a clear answer. " (P 196- 198)
7. People's misunderstanding of Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations.
"Today, more than two hundred years later, people still have three misunderstandings about Smith and his The Wealth of Nations.
"First of all, it is the' invisible hand' that Smith refers to. In fact, the term appearing in The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments is ironic. Smith believes that capitalism will create a set of self-running laws according to the mechanism of market and interest exchange. To an ignorant bystander, it seems that everyone is moving towards a goal, with an' invisible hand' pushing behind them. Smith never praised how perfect the function of the market is, but it is much better than human intervention-human beings are emotional animals after all.
"... Smith attacked not only the colonial trade monopoly, but also the improper intervention of governments in the economy. This is the second misunderstanding of The Wealth of Nations, which holds that Smith advocates laissez-faire capitalism and the government does not need to play any role. In fact, the word "laissez-faire" comes from French economics and Smith never used it. In addition, Smith also emphasized the importance of government. With a strong national defense, a country's trade can be fully guaranteed, and at the same time, it provides a system to guarantee justice and human rights, especially property rights:' only under the protection of the government can the precious assets accumulated for many years or even generations be safe and sound.' The infrastructure such as roads, bridges, canals and ports needed to promote economic development is indispensable for government intervention.
In addition, Smith believes that other forms of government intervention will be disastrous. The history of Yin Jian is full of spots. The government often tries to change the current economic situation with good intentions, but the result is tragic.
"... Smith's belief in the free market is not behind closed doors, but proves the lessons of history. Those in power should learn from their mistakes and let the commercial society follow the natural trajectory. ..... This is Adam Smith we are familiar with: a prophet who is the spokesman of the capitalist market operated by "natural freedom" and tries his best to resist all improper interference.
"... Smith also foresaw another corruption phenomenon in commercial society. Capitalism emphasizes the division of labor, making the overall output of goods more refined, and also makes people involved in this process narrow-minded, only concerned about their own careers or professional fields, and lacking interest in external affairs. Everything is measured from the commercial point of view, only the trees can't see the forest, ignoring the whole picture of the incident. ”(P207-2 10)
8. America: a country built by Scottish ideas.
"Looking back at the early days, there is not much difference between the United States and Canada. They used to be British colonies, spoke the same language, belonged to the same geographical map, and their economic situation was similar. Both are immigrant countries, and both are large numbers of Scottish immigrants.
"At a certain turning point, the fate of the two countries began to go their separate ways. Most of Canada is dominated by public enterprises, and the source of funds is from top to bottom. ..... Americans plan the blueprint for the founding of the country according to Smith and Rhett's theory-it is best to control personal interests with little intervention when both the group and the government know it. 1787 The American Constitution reveals the scope of federal power, and the rest belongs to the state governments. ..... This fully embodies Durgard Stewart's political philosophy: the government should be a resource to promote social progress, not a stumbling block.
"Despite the above differences, Scottish immigrants have made great contributions to both the United States and Canada.
"... Scottish identity from the heart. No wonder, for them, this is a paradise to realize their dreams. The United States is advancing by leaps and bounds, and the Scots occupy an indispensable position. ..... Coming here, the Scots gained a new identity and turned a new page in their lives through the endless opportunities provided by the new government. Being an American is not only a totem of identity-as opposed to "northern Englishman"-but also not limited to the category of civilization. It is a symbol of longing for success. Man is man-made because his fate is in his own hands.
"This is also the individualism advertised in the Renaissance, but it is only the ideal of the elite at that time-assuming that the social structure is fixed, all classes and nationalities are satisfied with their own positions, and everyone can find a suitable position according to their own talents. There is no such thing in America. Just like the vast terrain, every field is open and new people are treated equally. As Jefferson said, "the empire of freedom."
"... a trend of thought gradually sprouted and bred, and all countries in the world held their breath-pure America is taking shape and has the essence of modernization. To tell the truth, the essence of America is an extension of Scottish descent-just like it is true. This group of immigrants showed their omnipresent ability, omnipresent strength and infinite possibility of self-improvement, which proved that peanuts in the New World can still get rich in troubled times. They designed the system of civilized society-respecting everyone's rights. While pursuing their own interests, they also did not forget to respect the interests of others. This is an enlightened society, echoing Hume's secular commandments. Although holding high the banner of freedom, there are traditional moral laws as the foundation (the legacy of the Presbyterian church), just like reinforced concrete, the social structure can be continuously strengthened and unbreakable. ”(P358-360)